{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T08:33:58Z","timestamp":1774082038278,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,27]],"date-time":"2023-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698364800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42001275"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42001275"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020JJ5980"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020JJ5980"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province","award":["42001275"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42001275"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province","award":["2020JJ5980"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020JJ5980"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Urbanization has significantly changed thermal environments and vegetation phenology. However, the effects of spatially different land surface temperatures (LST) on vegetation phenology, rather than differences between urban areas and rural areas, remain unclear. In this study, four cities with similar vegetation types located in temperate monsoon climate zones were selected to map vegetation phenological metrics and discuss their responses to spatially heterogeneous LST within urban areas. First, Sentinel 2-A and 2-B data were used to estimate phenological metrics by combining Savitzky\u2013Golay filtering, and Landsat 8 TIRS data was used to obtain LST. Second, buffer zones (from the urban center to the urban edge at 1 km intervals) were used to extract the averaged phenological metrics and LST. The response of the phenological metrics to LST from the urban center to the urban edge was then analyzed. Results show that spatial differences in LST and vegetation phenology exist inside urban regions as well as between urban and peri-urban areas. In addition, the response of phenology to LST within urban areas is also obvious. SOS is negatively related to spring LST from the urban center to the urban edge, whereas EOS is positively related to autumn LST.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15215133","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,27]],"date-time":"2023-10-27T09:56:36Z","timestamp":1698400596000},"page":"5133","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Impacts of Thermal Differences in Surfacing Urban Heat Islands on Vegetation Phenology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2379-8328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yongke","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographic Information Science, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Digital Dongting Lake of Hunan Province, Changsha 410004, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0895-7977","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinyi","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographic Information Science, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Digital Dongting Lake of Hunan Province, Changsha 410004, China"}]},{"given":"Liuming","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geographical Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, China"}]},{"given":"Dohyung","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Korea Research Institute on Climate Change, Chuncheon 24239, Republic of Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1078\/1433-8319-00053","article-title":"The phenology of growth and reproduction in plants","volume":"1","author":"Fenner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Fenner, M. (2012). Seed Ecology, Springer Science+Business Media."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.02.010","article-title":"Remotely sensed assessment of urbanization effects on vegetation phenology in China\u2019s 32 major cities","volume":"176","author":"Zhou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-013-0097-6","article-title":"Land surface phenology and land surface temperature changes along an urban\u2013rural gradient in Yangtze River Delta, China","volume":"52","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.14619","article-title":"Plant phenology and global climate change: Current progresses and challenges","volume":"25","author":"Piao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13081","article-title":"Temperature, precipitation, and insolation effects on autumn vegetation phenology in temperate China","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Wang, Y., Zhang, Z., Zhang, H., Guo, X., Yu, S., Du, W., and Huang, F. (2016). The variations of land surface phenology in Northeast China and its responses to climate change from 1982 to 2013. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8050400"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14770","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14918-4","article-title":"Monitoring the long term vegetation phenology change in Northeast China from 1982 to 2015","volume":"7","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, S., Yi, S., Peichl, M., and Wang, X. (2017). Diverse responses of vegetation phenology to climate change in different grasslands in Inner Mongolia during 2000\u20132016. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10010017"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103989","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2020.103989","article-title":"Evidence of urban heat island impacts on the vegetation growing season length in a tropical city","volume":"206","author":"Kabano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, M., Zhou, Y., Hu, M., and Zhou, Y. (2020). Influence of urban scale and urban expansion on the urban heat island effect in metropolitan areas: Case study of Beijing\u2013Tianjin\u2013Hebei urban agglomeration. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12213491"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2017.04.053","article-title":"Temporal and spatial characteristics of the urban heat island in Beijing and the impact on building design and energy performance","volume":"130","author":"Cui","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Wang, G., Tian, G., and Jombach, S. (2020). Mapping and analyzing the park cooling effect on urban heat island in an expanding city: A case study in Zhengzhou city, China. Land, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/land9020057"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2023.101455","article-title":"Exploring the seasonality of surface urban heat islands using enhanced land surface temperature in a semi-arid city","volume":"49","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2011.0025","article-title":"Temporal changes in greenspace in a highly urbanized region","volume":"7","author":"Dallimer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.09.014","article-title":"Multisite analysis of land surface phenology in North American temperate and boreal deciduous forests from Landsat","volume":"186","author":"Melaas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2006.01123.x","article-title":"Variations in satellite-derived phenology in China\u2019s temperate vegetation","volume":"12","author":"Piao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12077","article-title":"Changes in satellite-derived spring vegetation green-up date and its linkage to climate in China from 1982 to 2010: A multimethod analysis","volume":"19","author":"Cong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"054020","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/11\/5\/054020","article-title":"Interactions between urban vegetation and surface urban heat islands: A case study in the Boston metropolitan region","volume":"11","author":"Melaas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1","article-title":"The energetic basis of the urban heat island","volume":"108","author":"Oke","year":"1982","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13462","article-title":"Strong contributions of local background climate to urban heat islands","volume":"511","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6313","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1602312113","article-title":"Prevalent vegetation growth enhancement in urban environment","volume":"113","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2010.12.001","article-title":"Bioclimatic design of open public spaces in the historic centre of Tirana, Albania","volume":"1","author":"Fintikakis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2015.01.003","article-title":"Urban phenological studies\u2013Past, present, future","volume":"203","author":"Jochner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2019.105760","article-title":"Vegetation green up under the influence of daily minimum temperature and urbanization in the Yellow River Basin, China","volume":"108","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1007\/s004840000062","article-title":"Phenology in central Europe\u2013differences and trends of spring phenophases in urban and rural areas","volume":"44","author":"Roetzer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.122487","article-title":"Characterizing urbanization-induced land surface phenology change from time-series remotely sensed images at fine spatio-temporal scale: A case study in Nanjing, China (2001\u20132018)","volume":"274","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2017.05.001","article-title":"Urban vegetation phenology analysis using high spatio-temporal NDVI time series","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2020.07.021","article-title":"A spatially explicit surface urban heat island database for the United States: Characterization, uncertainties, and possible applications","volume":"168","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1111\/geb.13429","article-title":"Urbanization delays plant leaf senescence and extends growing season length in cold but not in warm areas of the Northern Hemisphere","volume":"31","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2818","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13562","article-title":"Response of vegetation phenology to urbanization in the conterminous United States","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Q., Teo, H.C., and Koh, L.P. (2021). Artificial light at night advances spring phenology in the United States. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13030399"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"282","article-title":"Effects of light pollution on tree phenology in the urban environment","volume":"25","year":"2017","journal-title":"Morav. Geogr. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.12927","article-title":"Artificial light at night alters grassland vegetation species composition and phenology","volume":"55","author":"Bennie","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2745.12551","article-title":"Ecological effects of artificial light at night on wild plants","volume":"104","author":"Bennie","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-019-0931-1","article-title":"Urban\u2013rural gradients reveal joint control of elevated CO2 and temperature on extended photosynthetic seasons","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160088","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2016.88","article-title":"Five years of phenology observations from a mixed-grass prairie exposed to warming and elevated CO2","volume":"3","author":"Steltzer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereyda-Gonz\u00e1lez, J.M., De-la-Pe\u00f1a, C., Tezara, W., Zamora-Bustillos, R., Andueza-Noh, R.H., Noh-K\u00fa, J.G., Carrera-Mar\u00edn, M., and Garru\u00f1a, R. (2022). High Temperature and Elevated CO2 Modify Phenology and Growth in Pepper Plants. Agronomy, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy12081836"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL020137","article-title":"The footprint of urban climates on vegetation phenology","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00135-9","article-title":"Monitoring vegetation phenology using MODIS","volume":"84","author":"Zhang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Reed, B.C., Schwartz, M.D., and Xiao, X. (2009). Phenology of Ecosystem Processes: Applications in Global Change Research, Springer."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed, G., Zan, M., Helili, P., and Kasimu, A. (2023). Responses of Vegetation Phenology to Urbanisation and Natural Factors along an Urban-Rural Gradient: A Case Study of an Urban Agglomeration on the Northern Slope of the Tianshan Mountains. Land, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/land12051108"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112130","article-title":"Sensitivity of six typical spatiotemporal fusion methods to different influential factors: A comparative study for a normalized difference vegetation index time series reconstruction","volume":"252","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7865","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70607865","article-title":"An improved method for producing high spatial-resolution NDVI time series datasets with multi-temporal MODIS NDVI data and Landsat TM\/ETM+ images","volume":"7","author":"Rao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111685","article-title":"Continental-scale land surface phenology from harmonized Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 imagery","volume":"240","author":"Bolton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amin, E., Belda, S., Pipia, L., Szantoi, Z., El Baroudy, A., Moreno, J., and Verrelst, J. (2022). Multi-Season Phenology Mapping of Nile Delta Croplands Using Time Series of Sentinel-2 and Landsat 8 Green LAI. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14081812"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, People\u2019s Republic of China (2019). China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook, Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, People\u2019s Republic of China (2021). China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook, Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3303","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160310001618149","article-title":"European plant phenology and climate as seen in a 20-year AVHRR land-surface parameter dataset","volume":"25","author":"Vidale","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-022-00298-5","article-title":"Optical vegetation indices for monitoring terrestrial ecosystems globally","volume":"3","author":"Zeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.06.006","article-title":"Development of a two-band enhanced vegetation index without a blue band","volume":"112","author":"Jiang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acags.2020.100032","article-title":"Comparative analysis of different vegetation indices with respect to atmospheric particulate pollution using sentinel data","volume":"7","author":"Somvanshi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, Z., J\u00f6nsson, P., Jin, H., and Eklundh, L. (2017). Performance of smoothing methods for reconstructing NDVI time-series and estimating vegetation phenology from MODIS data. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9121271"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.09.003","article-title":"Noise reduction of NDVI time series: An empirical comparison of selected techniques","volume":"113","author":"Hird","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-017-0844-3","article-title":"Spatial-temporal changes of vegetation cover in Guizhou Province, Southern China","volume":"27","author":"Tian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, C., He, X., Wang, R., Yan, F., Yu, L., Bu, K., Yang, J., Chang, L., and Zhang, S. (2017). The effect of urban green spaces on the urban thermal environment and its seasonal variations. Forests, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/f8050153"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4268","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70404268","article-title":"An improved mono-window algorithm for land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat 8 thermal infrared sensor data","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2018.05.015","article-title":"Assessing the impact of street lighting on Platanus \u00d7 acerifolia phenology","volume":"34","author":"Massetti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/21\/5133\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:12:42Z","timestamp":1760130762000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/21\/5133"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,27]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15215133"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15215133","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,27]]}}}