{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T04:55:13Z","timestamp":1769748913583,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]],"date-time":"2023-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700006400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2020YFA0713502"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFA0713502"]}]},{"name":"The National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["41874039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874039"]}]},{"name":"The National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["BK20191342"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20191342"]}]},{"name":"The National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["KJ2020A0310"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJ2020A0310"]}]},{"name":"The National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2108085QD173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2108085QD173"]}]},{"name":"The National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2020YFA0713502"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFA0713502"]}]},{"name":"The National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41874039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874039"]}]},{"name":"The National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["BK20191342"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20191342"]}]},{"name":"The National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["KJ2020A0310"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJ2020A0310"]}]},{"name":"The National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2108085QD173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2108085QD173"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","award":["2020YFA0713502"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFA0713502"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","award":["41874039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874039"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","award":["BK20191342"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20191342"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","award":["KJ2020A0310"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJ2020A0310"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","award":["2108085QD173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2108085QD173"]}]},{"name":"The Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Colleges","award":["2020YFA0713502"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFA0713502"]}]},{"name":"The Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Colleges","award":["41874039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874039"]}]},{"name":"The Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Colleges","award":["BK20191342"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20191342"]}]},{"name":"The Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Colleges","award":["KJ2020A0310"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJ2020A0310"]}]},{"name":"The Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Colleges","award":["2108085QD173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2108085QD173"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Natural Science Foundation","award":["2020YFA0713502"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFA0713502"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Natural Science Foundation","award":["41874039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874039"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Natural Science Foundation","award":["BK20191342"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20191342"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Natural Science Foundation","award":["KJ2020A0310"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJ2020A0310"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Natural Science Foundation","award":["2108085QD173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2108085QD173"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The continuously improving performance of mass-market global navigation satellite system (GNSS) chipsets is enabling the prospect of high-precision GNSS positioning for smartphones. Nevertheless, a substantial portion of Android smartphones lack the capability to access raw carrier phase observations. Therefore, this paper introduces a precise code positioning (PCP) method, which utilizes Doppler-smoothed pseudo-range and inter-satellite single-difference methods. For the first time, the results of a quality investigation involving BDS-3 B1C\/B2a\/B1I, GPS L1\/L5, and Galileo E1\/E5a observed using smartphones are presented. The results indicated that Xiaomi 11 Lite (Mi11) exhibited a superior satellite data decoding performance compared to Huawei P40 (HP40), but it lagged behind HP40 in terms of satellite tracking. In the static open-sky scenario, the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) values were mostly above 25 dB-Hz. Additionally, for B1C\/B1I\/L1\/E1, they were approximately 8 dB-Hz higher than those for B2a\/L5\/E5a. Second, various PCP models were developed to address ionospheric delay. These models include the IF-P models, which combine traditional dual-frequency IF pseudo-ranges with single-frequency ionosphere-corrected pseudo-ranges using precise ionospheric products, and IFUC models, which rely solely on single-frequency ionosphere-corrected pseudo-ranges. Finally, static and dynamic tests were conducted using datasets collected from various real-world scenarios. The static tests demonstrated that the PCP models could achieve sub-meter-level accuracy in the east (E) and north (N) directions, while achieving meter-level accuracy in the upward (U) direction. Numerically, the root mean square error (RMSE) improvement percentages were approximately 93.8%, 75%, and 82.8% for HP40 in the E, N, and U directions, respectively, in both open-sky and complex scenarios compared to single-point positioning (SPP). In the open-sky scenario, Mi11 showed an average increase of about 85.6%, 87%, and 16% in the E, N, and U directions, respectively, compared to SPP. In complex scenarios, Mi11 exhibited an average increase of roughly 68%, 75.9%, and 90% in the E, N, and U directions, respectively, compared to SPP. Dynamic tests showed that the PCP models only provided an improvement of approximately 10% in the horizontal plane or U direction compared to SPP. The triple-frequency IFUC (IFUC123) model outperforms others due to its lower noise and utilization of multi-frequency pseudo-ranges. The PCP models can enhance smartphone positioning accuracy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15225371","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]],"date-time":"2023-11-15T10:57:46Z","timestamp":1700045866000},"page":"5371","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Performance of Smartphone BDS-3\/GPS\/Galileo Multi-Frequency Ionosphere-Free Precise Code Positioning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ruiguang","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Spatial Information and Geomatics Engineering, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhongyuan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fang","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1727-1977","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yangyang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qianxun Spatial Intelligence Inc., Shanghai 200082, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, C., and Xie, J. 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