{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T00:36:18Z","timestamp":1774485378194,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,17]],"date-time":"2023-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700179200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study endeavors to produce a comprehensive land cover map for Morocco, addressing the absence of such a detailed map in the country. Our research encompasses ecological and climatic aspects specific to Morocco, while the methods used can be adapted to various regions and countries, considering their unique climatic conditions and land cover types. A combination of MODIS and Landsat datasets was employed to create a 5 km resolution Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) map for the entire nation. The process involved the aggregation and advanced processing of these datasets using surface processes algorithms. The resulting LULC map is the first of its kind for Morocco, shedding light on land cover distribution nationwide. It shows that approximately 13.5% of the country is covered by forests, predominantly in the Atlas and Rif mountains, Rabat\u2013Sale, and the southern regions. Grasslands occupy over 16% of the study area, mainly in the north-east and west. Urban areas, including major cities like Casablanca, Rabat, and Marrakech, span nearly 3400 km\u00b2. Moreover, large areas of shrublands and bare lands are evident across the country, while agricultural lands account for almost 20% of the national territory, mainly in the interior plains and north-western Atlantic coast. This study forms a crucial basis for ecological and climatic research in Morocco and serves as a valuable reference for various disciplines such as agriculture, natural resource management, and climate modeling. The mapping of biophysical parameters for each land cover class is a key feature of our research, and these parameters will be instrumental in a subsequent study examining the impact of urban development on surface climate in Morocco. Overall, our study underscores the importance of understanding biophysical parameters in addressing environmental and societal challenges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15225389","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,17]],"date-time":"2023-11-17T09:23:43Z","timestamp":1700213023000},"page":"5389","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Using Satellite Data to Characterize Land Surface Processes in Morocco"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Thaiki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Research and Development in Applied Geosciences, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technique of Al Hoceima, Abdelmalek Essa\u00e2di University, Al Hoceima 32003, Morocco"}]},{"given":"Lahouari","family":"Bounoua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biospheric Sciences Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}]},{"given":"Hinde","family":"Cherkaoui Dekkaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Research and Development in Applied Geosciences, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technique of Al Hoceima, Abdelmalek Essa\u00e2di University, Al Hoceima 32003, Morocco"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2020, January 08). The Earth Institute\u2014Columbia University. Available online: https:\/\/www.earth.columbia.edu\/news\/2005\/story03-07-05.html."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Augusseau, X., Bourgoin, J., David, D., Degenne, P., Lagabrielle, E., Lestrelin, G., and Lo Seen, D. (2018). Les Terres Agricoles Face \u00e0 L\u2019urbanisation: De la Donn\u00e9e \u00e0 L\u2019action, Quels r\u00f4les Pour L\u2019information?, \u00c9ditions Qu\u00e6."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Hofmann, N. (2021, October 05). Bulletin D\u2019analyse: R\u00e9gions Rurales et Petites Villes du Canada. Available online: https:\/\/www150.statcan.gc.ca\/n1\/fr\/catalogue\/21-006-X."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2021, October 05). Worldwide Urban Expansion Causing Problems. ScienceDaily. Available online: https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2020\/03\/200326124129.htm."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Akesbi, N. (2006). \u00c9volution et Perspectives de L\u2019agriculture Marocaine, CIHEAM IAM Montpellier."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015002","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aa94fe","article-title":"Urbanization in Africa: Challenges and opportunities for conservation","volume":"13","author":"Lwasa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084010","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/10\/8\/084010","article-title":"Impact of urbanization on US surface climate","volume":"10","author":"Bounoua","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2021, October 05). Quelle est L\u2019influence du Milieu Urbain sur le Climat?. Available online: https:\/\/www.lemonde.fr\/climat\/article\/2014\/10\/03\/quelle-est-l-influence-du-milieu-urbain-sur-le-climat_4500276_1652612.html."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bounoua, L., Thome, K., and Nigro, J. (2021). Cities Exacerbate Climate Warming. Urban Sci., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/urbansci5010027"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.2019.1601007","article-title":"A Satellite Assessment of the Urban Heat Island in Morocco","volume":"45","author":"Fathi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.2016.1194746","article-title":"Modeling the Urban Impact on Semiarid Surface Climate: A Case Study in Marrakech, Morocco","volume":"42","author":"Lachir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1175\/1525-7541(2000)001<0183:AGYBLS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Global 9-yr Biophysical Land Surface Dataset from NOAA AVHRR Data","volume":"1","author":"Los","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2000)013<2277:SOCTCI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Sensitivity of Climate to Changes in NDVI","volume":"13","author":"Bounoua","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G01006","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JG000062","article-title":"Estimating forest carbon fluxes in a disturbed southeastern landscape: Integration of remote sensing, forest inventory, and biogeochemical modeling","volume":"111","author":"Masek","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1882","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1993)006<1882:IOSSHI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Influence of Subgrid-Scale Heterogeneity in Leaf Area Index, Stomatal Resistance, and Soil Moisture on Grid-Scale Land\u2013Atmosphere Interactions","volume":"6","author":"Bonan","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D22S09","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD007309","article-title":"Sensitivity of surface climate to land surface parameters: A case study using the simple biosphere model SiB2","volume":"111","author":"Bounoua","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1996)009<0706:ARLSPF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Revised Land Surface Parameterization (SiB2) for Atmospheric GCMS. Part II: The Generation of Global Fields of Terrestrial Biophysical Parameters from Satellite Data","volume":"9","author":"Sellers","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"(2021, October 05). K. Didan. MOD13A1 MODIS\/Terra Vegetation Indices 16-Day L3 Global 500m SIN Grid V006 2015, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/products\/mod13a1v006\/."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1996)009<0676:ARLSPF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A revised Land Surface Parameterization (SiB2) for Atmospheric GCMs. Part I: Model Formulation","volume":"9","author":"Sellers","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2021, September 18). HAUT COMMISSARIAT AU PLAN. Statistiques Environnementales au Maroc. Available online: https:\/\/www.hcp.ma\/downloads\/Statistiques-environnementales-au-Maroc_t22451.html."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"RGPH, Recensement G\u00e9n\u00e9ral de la Population et de l\u2019Habitat. Population l\u00e9gale des R\u00e9gions, Provinces, Pr\u00e9fectures, Municipalit\u00e9s, Arrondissements Et Communes du Royaume D\u2019apr\u00e8s les R\u00e9sultats du RGPH 2014 (12 R\u00e9gions). 2015."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"UN-Habitat (2016). World Cities Report 2016: Urbanization and Development, Emerging Futures, UN-Habitat."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Elan, S. (2021, September 20). Country Profile: Morocco. Available online: https:\/\/www.refworld.org\/docid\/46f9134ed.html."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Sulla-Menashe, D., and Friedl, M. (2021, September 16). MCD12Q1 MODIS\/Terra+Aqua Land Cover Type Yearly L3 Global 500m SIN Grid V006 2015, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/products\/mcd12q1v006\/."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2021, September 16). K. Didan. MYD13A2 MODIS\/Aqua Vegetation Indices 16-Day L3 Global 1km SIN Grid V006 2015, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/products\/myd13a2v006\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Brown de Colstoun, E.C., Huang, C., Wang, P., Tilton, J.C., Tan, B., Phillips, J., Niemczura, S., Ling, P.-Y., and Wolfe, R.E. (2017). Global Man-made Impervious Surface (GMIS) Dataset From Landsat, Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC)."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"564279","article-title":"Mapping Biophysical Parameters for Land Surface Modeling over the Continental US Using MODIS and Landsat","volume":"2015","author":"Bounoua","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dataset Pap. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2020, October 11). Global Land Cover -Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available online: http:\/\/www.fao.org\/land-water\/land\/land-governance\/land-resources-planning-toolbox\/category\/details\/en\/c\/1036355\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2020, October 11). Formations Foresti\u00e8res, Available online: http:\/\/www.eauxetforets.gov.ma\/ForetsMarocaines\/Formations\/Pages\/Formations-Forestieres.aspx."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JAMC2044.1","article-title":"Impact of Urban Growth on Surface Climate: A Case Study in Oran, Algeria","volume":"48","author":"Bounoua","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2020, October 06). For\u00eats En Chiffres, Available online: http:\/\/www.eauxetforets.gov.ma\/ForetsMarocaines\/ForetsChiffres\/Pages\/Forets-En-Chiffres.aspx."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2020, October 06). R\u00e9partition G\u00e9ographique, Available online: http:\/\/www.eauxetforets.gov.ma\/ForetsMarocaines\/ForetsChiffres\/Pages\/Repartition-Geographique.aspx."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"585","article-title":"Overview of lai\/fpar retrieval from remotely sensed data","volume":"19","author":"Yuan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Adv. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2011). Systematic Observation Requirements for Satellite-Based Data Products for Climate, Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.01.002","article-title":"Can a satellite-derived estimate of the fraction of PAR absorbed by chlorophyll (FAPARchl) improve predictions of light-use efficiency and ecosystem photosynthesis for a boreal aspen forest?","volume":"113","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2014.11.002","article-title":"Variations in the influence of diffuse light on gross primary productivity in temperate ecosystems","volume":"201","author":"Cheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1111\/nph.12039","article-title":"An algorithm to derive the fraction of photosynthetically active radiation absorbed by photosynthetic elements of the canopy (FAPARps) from eddy covariance flux tower data","volume":"197","author":"Ogutu","year":"2013","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-010-0812-7","article-title":"Spatio-temporal variation of photosynthetically active radiation in China in recent 50 years","volume":"20","author":"Zhu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2013.01.003","article-title":"Development of a two-leaf light use efficiency model for improving the calculation of terrestrial gross primary productivity","volume":"173","author":"He","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2013.04.025","article-title":"Impact of diffuse light on isoprene and monoterpene emissions from a mixed temperate forest","volume":"74","author":"Laffineur","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, L., Baldocchi, D., Verma, S.B., Black, T.A., Vesala, T., Falge, E.M., and Dowty, P.R. (2002). Advantages of diffuse radiation for terrestrial ecosystem productivity. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 107.","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JD001242"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2007.04.006","article-title":"Interpreting shallow, vertical nitrogen profiles in tree crowns: A three-dimensional, radiative-transfer simulation accounting for diffuse sunlight","volume":"145","author":"Alton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(97)00139-9","article-title":"Ecological Research Needs from Multiangle Remote Sensing Data","volume":"63","author":"Asner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.03.009","article-title":"Assimilation of surface albedo and vegetation states from satellite observations and their impact on numerical weather prediction","volume":"163","author":"Boussetta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"World Meteorological Organization (WMO), The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), International Council for Science (ICSU), and GCOS (2011). Systematic Observation Requirements for Satellite-Based Products for Climate. Supplemental Details to the Satellite-Based Component of the Implementation Plan for the Global Observing System for Climate in Support of the UNFCCC: 2011 Update, WMO."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2022, February 08). Fraction of Green Vegetation Cover|Copernicus Global Land Service. Available online: https:\/\/land.copernicus.eu\/global\/products\/fcover."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2022, February 08). Roughness Length. Available online: http:\/\/www-das.uwyo.edu\/~geerts\/cwx\/notes\/chap14\/roughness.html."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2022, February 08). Zero-Plane Displacement. Available online: https:\/\/glossary.ametsoc.org\/wiki\/Zero-plane_displacement."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3109","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-6-3109-2009","article-title":"An integrated model of soil-canopy spectral radiances, photosynthesis, fluorescence, temperature and energy balance","volume":"6","author":"Verhoef","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2008.02.001","article-title":"A green roof model for building energy simulation programs","volume":"40","author":"Sailor","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2015.09.016","article-title":"On the effect of roof added photovoltaics on building\u2019s energy demand","volume":"108","author":"Kapsalis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"BETAF (2020). L\u2019\u00e9tude D\u2019am\u00e9nagement et de Valorisation des Nappes d\u2019alfa dans la Province de Jerada, Consulting & Formation BETAF."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.2135\/cropsci1972.0011183X001200050039x","article-title":"Morphological Characteristics of Alfalfa Plants Grown at Several Temperatures","volume":"12","author":"Bula","year":"1972","journal-title":"Crop. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"13","article-title":"Morphological characterization of tufts of alfa (Stipa tenacissima L.) from different populations in the Kasserine region of Tunisia","volume":"46","author":"Nasri","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. New Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00135-9","article-title":"Monitoring vegetation phenology using MODIS","volume":"84","author":"Zhang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-006-0657-z","article-title":"Use of digital webcam images to track spring green-up in a deciduous broadleaf forest","volume":"152","author":"Richardson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/s11284-017-1551-3","article-title":"Ecological consideration for several methodologies to diagnose vegetation phenology","volume":"33","author":"Lim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00103-2","article-title":"A regional phenology model for detecting onset of greenness in temperate mixed forests, Korea: An application of MODIS leaf area index","volume":"86","author":"Kang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2016.05.004","article-title":"A systematic review of vegetation phenology in Africa","volume":"34","author":"Adole","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Inform."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"50","article-title":"Spatialisation des bioclimats, de l\u2019aridit\u00e9 et des \u00e9tages de v\u00e9g\u00e9tation du Maroc","volume":"2","author":"Mokhtari","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. V\u00e9t."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/22\/5389\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:24:31Z","timestamp":1760131471000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/22\/5389"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,17]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15225389"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15225389","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,17]]}}}