{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T11:28:00Z","timestamp":1780918080670,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,24]],"date-time":"2023-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700784000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research &amp; Development Program of China","award":["2019YFE0126700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFE0126700"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research &amp; Development Program of China","award":["2020YFE0200700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFE0200700"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research &amp; Development Program of China","award":["42271358"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271358"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research &amp; Development Program of China","award":["30-Y60B01-9003-22\/23"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30-Y60B01-9003-22\/23"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research &amp; Development Program of China","award":["2017-000052-73-01-001735"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-000052-73-01-001735"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2019YFE0126700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFE0126700"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2020YFE0200700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFE0200700"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42271358"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271358"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["30-Y60B01-9003-22\/23"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30-Y60B01-9003-22\/23"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2017-000052-73-01-001735"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-000052-73-01-001735"]}]},{"name":"The Major Project of High Resolution Earth Observation System","award":["2019YFE0126700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFE0126700"]}]},{"name":"The Major Project of High Resolution Earth Observation System","award":["2020YFE0200700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFE0200700"]}]},{"name":"The Major Project of High Resolution Earth Observation System","award":["42271358"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271358"]}]},{"name":"The Major Project of High Resolution Earth Observation System","award":["30-Y60B01-9003-22\/23"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30-Y60B01-9003-22\/23"]}]},{"name":"The Major Project of High Resolution Earth Observation System","award":["2017-000052-73-01-001735"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-000052-73-01-001735"]}]},{"name":"Common Application Support Platform for National Civil Space Infrastructure Land Observation Satellites","award":["2019YFE0126700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFE0126700"]}]},{"name":"Common Application Support Platform for National Civil Space Infrastructure Land Observation Satellites","award":["2020YFE0200700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020YFE0200700"]}]},{"name":"Common Application Support Platform for National Civil Space Infrastructure Land Observation Satellites","award":["42271358"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271358"]}]},{"name":"Common Application Support Platform for National Civil Space Infrastructure Land Observation Satellites","award":["30-Y60B01-9003-22\/23"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["30-Y60B01-9003-22\/23"]}]},{"name":"Common Application Support Platform for National Civil Space Infrastructure Land Observation Satellites","award":["2017-000052-73-01-001735"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-000052-73-01-001735"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nepal has experienced severe fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution in recent years. However, few studies have focused on the distribution of PM2.5 and its variations in Nepal. Although many researchers have developed PM2.5 estimation models, these models have mainly focused on the kilometer scale, which cannot provide accurate spatial distribution of PM2.5 pollution. Based on Gaofen-1\/6 and Landsat-8\/9 satellite data, we developed a stacked ensemble learning model (named XGBLL) combined with meteorological data, ground PM2.5 concentrations, ground elevation, and population data. The model includes two layers: a XGBoost and Light GBM model in the first layer, and a linear regression model in the second layer. The accuracy of XGBLL model is better than that of a single model, and the fusion of multi-source satellite remote sensing data effectively improves the spatial coverage of PM2.5 concentrations. Besides, the spatial distribution of the daily mean PM2.5 concentrations in the Kathmandu region under different air conditions was analyzed. The validation results showed that the monthly averaged dataset was accurate (R2 = 0.80 and root mean square error = 7.07). In addition, compared to previous satellite PM2.5 datasets in Nepal, the dataset produced in this study achieved superior accuracy and spatial resolution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15235489","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,24]],"date-time":"2023-11-24T06:51:28Z","timestamp":1700808688000},"page":"5489","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["High-Resolution PM2.5 Concentrations Estimation Based on Stacked Ensemble Learning Model Using Multi-Source Satellite TOA Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Qiming","family":"Fu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, North China Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Langfang 065000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2719-9465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hong","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xingfa","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, North China Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Langfang 065000, China"},{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8762-1878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenhao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, North China Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Langfang 065000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-2543-1853","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaofei","family":"Mi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qichao","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, North China Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Langfang 065000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9313-2618","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Debao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"IQAir (2023, November 01). 2020 World Air Quality Report. 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