{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,24]],"date-time":"2025-12-24T12:27:08Z","timestamp":1766579228025,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]],"date-time":"2023-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ESA","award":["4000126730\/19\/NL\/IA","DEC-2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4000126730\/19\/NL\/IA","DEC-2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004281","name":"National Science Centre (NCN) of Poland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["4000126730\/19\/NL\/IA","DEC-2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4000126730\/19\/NL\/IA","DEC-2021\/41\/B\/ST10\/03954"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004281","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Swarm electron density (Ne) observations from the Langmuir probe (LP) can detect ionospheric disturbances at the altitude of a satellite. Along-track satellite observations provide a large number of very short observations of different places in the ionosphere, where Ne is disturbed. Moreover, different perturbations occupy various Ne signal frequencies. Therefore, such short signals are more recognizable in two dimensions, where aside from their change in time, we can observe their diversity in the frequency domain. Spectral analysis is an essential tool applied here, as it enables signal decomposition and the recognition of composite patterns of Ne disturbances that occupy different frequencies. This study shows a high-resolution application of short-term Fourier transform (STFT) to Swarm Ne observations in the Papua New Guinea region in the vicinity of earthquakes, tsunamis, and related general seismic activity. The system of tectonic plate junctions, including the Pacific\u2013Australian boundary, is located orthogonally to Swarm track footprints. The selected wavelengths of seismically induced ionospheric disturbances detected via Swarm are compared with the three sets of three-month records of seismic activity: in the winter solstice of 2016\/2017, when seismic activity was highest, and in the summer solstice and vernal equinox of 2016, which were calmer. Moreover, more Swarm data records are analyzed at the same latitudes for validation purposes, in a place where there are no tectonic plate boundaries that are orthogonal to the Swarm orbital footprint. Additional validation is supplied through Swarm Ne observations from completely different latitudes, where the Swarm orbital footprint orthogonally crosses a different subducting plate boundary. Aside from the seismic energy, the solar radio flux (F10.7), equatorial plasma bubbles (EPBs), and geomagnetic ap and Dst indices are also reviewed here. Their influence on the ionospheric Ne is also found in Swarm observations. Finally, the Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC), applied to the pairs of 3-month time series created from Swarm Ne variations, seismic energy, ap, Dst, and F10.7, summarizes the graphical inspection of mutual correlations. It points to the predominant correlation of Swarm Ne disturbances with seismicity, especially during nighttime. We show that most of the Ne disturbances at a selected wavelength of 300 km correlate more with seismicity than with geomagnetic and solar indices. Therefore, Swarm LP can be assessed as being capable of observing the lithosphere\u2013atmosphere\u2013ionosphere coupling (LAIC) from the orbit.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15235557","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]],"date-time":"2023-11-29T12:01:00Z","timestamp":1701259260000},"page":"5557","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The Correlation between Ionospheric Electron Density Variations Derived from Swarm Satellite Observations and Seismic Activity at the Australian\u2013Pacific Tectonic Plate Boundary"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7654-458X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wojciech","family":"Jarmo\u0142owski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5542-1481","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Wielgosz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9687-5850","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, IonSAT, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Space Studies of Catalonia, IEEC-CERCA, Ed. Nexus I, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1583-2307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heng","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, IonSAT, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5558-0001","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beata","family":"Milanowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Krypiak-Gregorczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4907-0494","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enric","family":"Monte-Moreno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, IonSAT, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6226-4851","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Garc\u00eda-Rigo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, IonSAT, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Space Studies of Catalonia, IEEC-CERCA, Ed. Nexus I, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6903-5891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victoria","family":"Graffigna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, IonSAT, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Institute of Space Studies of Catalonia, IEEC-CERCA, Ed. Nexus I, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"given":"Roger","family":"Haagmans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ESTEC, European Space Agency, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2009.12.004","article-title":"Atmospheric electricity coupling between earthquake regions and the ionosphere","volume":"72","author":"Harrison","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys."},{"unstructured":"Pulinets, S., and Boyarchuk, K. (2005). Ionospheric Precursors of Earthquakes, Springer Science & Business Media.","key":"ref_2"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-7-155-2007","article-title":"A perturbation of DC electric field caused by light ion adhesion to aerosols during the growth in seismic-related atmospheric radioactivity","volume":"7","author":"Sorokin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bartholomew, M.J., Hyndman, D.W., Mogk, D.W., and Mason, R. (1992). Basement Tectonics 8, Proceedings of the International Conferences on Basement Tectonics, Duluth, MI, USA, 1\u201311 August 1992, Springer.","key":"ref_4","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-1614-5"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0273-1177(99)01223-5","article-title":"Quasielectrostatic Model of atmosphere-thermosphere-ionosphere coupling","volume":"26","author":"Pulinets","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2013.12.035","article-title":"Ionospheric precursors of earthquakes and Global Electric Circuit","volume":"53","author":"Pulinets","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hayakawa, M., Izutsu, J., Schekotov, A., Yang, S.-S., Solovieva, M., and Budilova, E. (2021). Lithosphere\u2013Atmosphere\u2013Ionosphere Coupling Effects Based on Multiparameter Precursor Observations for February\u2013March 2021 Earthquakes (M~7) in the Offshore of Tohoku Area of Japan. Geosciences, 11.","key":"ref_7","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences11110481"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2010.03.009","article-title":"Pre-earthquake signals: Underlying physical processes","volume":"41","author":"Freund","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019SW002302","DOI":"10.1029\/2019SW002302","article-title":"The persistent ionospheric responses over Japan after the impact of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake","volume":"18","author":"Chou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-022-01665-8","article-title":"Electromagnetic conjugacy of ionospheric disturbances after the 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha\u2019apai volcanic eruption as seen in GNSS-TEC and SuperDARN Hokkaido pair of radars observations","volume":"74","author":"Shinbori","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-246x.1998.00438.x","article-title":"Ionospheric signature of surface mine blasts from Global Positioning System measurements","volume":"132","author":"Calais","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B09313","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JB004202","article-title":"Detection of ruptures of Andaman fault segments in the 2004 great Sumatra earthquake with coseismic ionospheric disturbances","volume":"111","author":"Heki","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7914","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JA019825","article-title":"Pattern and evolution of seismo-ionospheric disturbances following the 2011 Tohoku earthquakes from GPS observations","volume":"119","author":"Jin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2015.05.003","article-title":"GNSS ionospheric seismology: Recent observations evidences and characteristics","volume":"147","author":"Jin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3629","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-019-02147-x","article-title":"Multi-Parametric Climatological Analysis Associated with Global Significant Volcanic Eruptions During 2002\u20132017","volume":"176","author":"Piscini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1951","article-title":"Ionospheric remote sensing of the Denali Earthquake Rayleigh surface waves","volume":"30","author":"Artru","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3626","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50322","article-title":"From Sumatra 2004 to Tohoku- Oki 2011: The systematic GPS detection of the ionospheric signature induced by tsunamigenic earthquakes","volume":"118","author":"Occhipinti","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2011.06.020","article-title":"The resonant response of the ionosphere imaged after the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake","volume":"63","author":"Rolland","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6511","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50586","article-title":"Temporal and spatial precursors in ionospheric total electron content of the 16 October 1999 Mw7.1 Hector Mine earthquake","volume":"118","author":"Su","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, H., Monte Moreno, E., and Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares, M. (2019). ADDTID: An alternative tool for studying earthquake\/tsunami signatures in the ionosphere. Case of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Remote Sens., 11.","key":"ref_20","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11161894"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JA013613","article-title":"Is an unusual large enhancement of ionospheric electron density linked with the 2008 great Wenchuan earthquake?","volume":"113","author":"Zhao","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s10950-015-9516-x","article-title":"Statistical analysis of seismo-ionospheric anomalies related to Ms > 5.0 earthquakes in China by GPS TEC","volume":"20","author":"Ke","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Seismol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A02303","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JA015781","article-title":"A statistical analysis of ionospheric anomalies before 736 M6.0+ earthquakes during 2002\u20132010","volume":"116","author":"Le","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3731","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50313","article-title":"Statistical analysis of an ionospheric parameter as a base for earthquake prediction","volume":"118","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"A08309","article-title":"Ionospheric density variations recorded before the 2010 Mw 8.8 earthquake in Chile","volume":"116","author":"Parrot","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"21","article-title":"Characteristics of flux time profiles, temporal evolution, and spatial distribution of radiation belt electron precipitation bursts in the upper ionosphere before great and giant earthquakes","volume":"55","author":"Anagnostopoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8524","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JA020284","article-title":"Seismo-ionospheric coupling appearing as equatorial electron density enhancements observed via DEMETER electron density measurements","volume":"119","author":"Ryu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-12-75-2012","article-title":"Phenomena of electrostatic perturbations before strong earthquakes (2005\u20132010) observed on DEMETER","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-10-7-2010","article-title":"Electron and ion density variations before strong earthquakes (M > 6.0) using DEMETER and GPS data","volume":"10","author":"Akhoondzadeh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nrjag.2017.12.007","article-title":"Unusual ionospheric variations before the strong Auckland Islands, New Zealand earthquake of 30th September, 2007","volume":"7","author":"Ibanga","year":"2018","journal-title":"NRIAG J. Astron. Geophys."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diego, P., Coco, I., Bertello, I., Candidi, M., and Ubertini, P. (2019). Ionospheric Plasma Density Measurements by Swarm Langmuir Probes: Limitations and possible Corrections. Ann. Geophys. Discuss.","key":"ref_31","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-2019-136"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3650","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JA026515","article-title":"Geomagnetically conjugate observations of equatorial plasma irregularities from Swarm constellation and ground-based GPS stations","volume":"124","author":"Luo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-018-9345-8","article-title":"The technology of space plasma in-situ measurement on the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite","volume":"62","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. China Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93927","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2928015","article-title":"Precursor analysis associated with the Ecuador earthquake using Swarm A and C satellite magnetic data based on PCA","volume":"7","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621976","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2021.621976","article-title":"Analysis of Swarm Satellite Magnetic Field Data Before the 2016 Ecuador (Mw = 7.8) Earthquake Based on Non-negative Matrix Factorization","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W18-45-2019","article-title":"Seismo-Magnetic Field Anomalies Detection Using Swarm Satellites (Alpha, Bravo and Charlie)","volume":"XLII-4\/W18","author":"Akhoondzadeh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marchetti, D., De Santis, A., Jin, S., Campuzano, S.A., Cianchini, G., and Piscini, A. (2020). Co-Seismic Magnetic Field Perturbations Detected by Swarm Three-Satellite Constellation. Remote Sens., 12.","key":"ref_37","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12071166"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-019-02138-y","article-title":"Magnetic Field and Electron Density Anomalies from Swarm Satellites Preceding the Major Earthquakes of the 2016\u20132017 Amatrice-Norcia (Central Italy) Seismic Sequence","volume":"177","author":"Marchetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33268","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3060348","article-title":"Integrating Pre-Earthquake Signatures from Different Precursor Tools","volume":"9","author":"Ghamry","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s11600-018-0115-4","article-title":"Pre-seismic geomagnetic and ionosphere signatures related to the Mw5.7 earthquake occurred in Vrancea zone on September 24, 2016","volume":"66","author":"Stanica","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Geophys."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2018.04.043","article-title":"Analysis of Swarm satellites data showing seismo-ionospheric anomalies around the time of the strong Mexico (Mw = 8.2) earthquake of 08 September 2017","volume":"62","author":"Marchetti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2019.104097","article-title":"Possible Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling effects prior to the 2018 Mw = 7.5 Indonesia earthquake from seismic, atmospheric and ionospheric data","volume":"188","author":"Marchetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Santis, A., Marchetti, D., Spogli, L., Cianchini, G., Pav\u00f3n-Carrasco, F.J., Franceschi, G.D., Di Giovambattista, R., Perrone, L., Qamili, E., and Cesaroni, C. (2019). Magnetic Field and Electron Density Data Analysis from Swarm Satellites Searching for Ionospheric Effects by Great Earthquakes: 12 Case Studies from 2014 to 2016. Atmosphere, 10.","key":"ref_43","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10070371"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H., Yan, R., Liu, D., Xu, S., Lin, J., Guo, F., Huang, J., Zeren, Z., and Shen, X. (Nat. Hazard Res., 2022). The variations of plasma density recorded by CSES-1 satellite possibly related to Mexico Ms 7.1 earthquake on 8th September 2021, Nat. Hazard Res., in press.","key":"ref_44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nhres.2021.12.002"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.26464\/epp2018050","article-title":"Examples of unusual ionospheric observations by the CSES prior to earthquakes","volume":"2","author":"Yan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Phys."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779255","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2021.779255","article-title":"Pre-Earthquake Ionospheric Perturbation Identification Using CSES Data via Transfer Learning","volume":"9","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"119","article-title":"Statistical correlation analysis of strong earthquakes and ionospheric electron density anomalies as observed by CSES-01","volume":"44","author":"Marchetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"IL Nuovo C"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20287","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56599-1","article-title":"Precursory worldwide signatures of earthquake occurrences on Swarm satellite data","volume":"9","author":"Marchetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pepi.2021.106826","article-title":"A study to investigate the relationship between ionospheric disturbance and seismic activity based on Swarm satellite data","volume":"323","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Earth Planet. Inter."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-015-0200-8","article-title":"Post-seismic ionospheric response to the 11 April 2012 East Indian Ocean doublet earthquake","volume":"67","author":"Sunil","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2013.10.003","article-title":"Magnetospheric ULF wave studies in the frame of Swarm mission: A time-frequency analysis tool for automated detection of pulsations in magnetic and electric field observations","volume":"65","author":"Balasis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Space"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6922","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL065424","article-title":"ULF wave power features in the topside ionosphere revealed by Swarm observations","volume":"42","author":"Balasis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20180098","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2018.0098","article-title":"Ionospheric response to solar and interplanetary disturbances: A Swarm perspective","volume":"377","author":"Balasis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2021042","article-title":"Combining Swarm Langmuir probe observations, LEO-POD-based and ground-based GNSS receivers and ionosondes for prompt detection of ionospheric earthquake and tsunami signatures: Case study of 2015 Chile-Illapel event","volume":"11","author":"Belehaki","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Space Weather Space Clim."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8494","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JB012467","article-title":"Multifrequential periodogram analysis of earthquake occurrence: An alternative approach to the Schuster spectrum, with two examples in central California","volume":"120","author":"Dutilleul","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid. Earth"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7366","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL065088","article-title":"Possible seasonality in large deep-focus earthquakes","volume":"42","author":"Zhan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JA028103","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JA028103","article-title":"Ionospheric plasma irregularities based on in situ measurements from the Swarm satellites","volume":"124","author":"Jin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-38-611-2020","article-title":"Occurrence climatology of equatorial plasma bubbles derived using FormoSat-3\/COSMIC GPS radio occultation data","volume":"38","author":"Kepkar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-016-0490-5","article-title":"GPS and in situ Swarm observations of the equatorial plasma density irregularities in the topside ionosphere","volume":"68","author":"Zakharenkova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Space"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1978.10837","article-title":"On the Use of Windows for Harmonic Analysis with the Discrete Fourier Transform","volume":"66","author":"Harris","year":"1978","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"unstructured":"Stankovic, L. (2015). Digital Signal Processing with Selected Topics, An Amazon.com Company.","key":"ref_61"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2013.12.014","article-title":"Threshold magnitude for ionospheric TEC response to earthquakes","volume":"108","author":"Perevalova","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JA026107","article-title":"Ionospheric GNSS imagery of seismic source: Possibilities, difficulties, and challenges","volume":"124","author":"Astafyeva","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9239","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JA026640","article-title":"Preseismic ionospheric anomalies detected before the 2016 Taiwan earthquake","volume":"124","author":"Goto","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JA029798","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JA029798","article-title":"The first evidence for the detection of CIDs masked by equatorial plasma bubbles from GPS-TEC data","volume":"127","author":"Rajesh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2006.03.032","article-title":"Cumulative Benioff strain-release, modified Omori\u2019s law and transient behaviour of rocks","volume":"424","author":"Kawada","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2165","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00001079","article-title":"Precursory seismic activation and critical-point phenomena","volume":"157","author":"Rundle","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00881603","article-title":"Predicting earthquakes by analyzing accelerating precursory seismic activity","volume":"130","author":"Varnes","year":"1989","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.5047\/eps.2013.08.005","article-title":"The Ionospheric Bubble Index deduced from magnetic field and plasma observations onboard Swarm","volume":"65","author":"Park","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Space"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A10317","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JA016628","article-title":"Ionosphere plasma bubbles and density variations induced by pre-earthquake rock currents and associated surface charges","volume":"116","author":"Kuo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/23\/5557\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:33:50Z","timestamp":1760132030000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/23\/5557"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15235557"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15235557","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]]}}}