{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T20:42:51Z","timestamp":1773866571111,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]],"date-time":"2023-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701388800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We discuss a remote sensing system that is used to simultaneously detect range-resolved differential absorption LIDAR (light detection and ranging; DIAL) signals and integrated path differential absorption LIDAR signals (IPDA LIDAR) from aerosol targets for ranges up to 22 km. The DIAL\/IPDA LIDAR frequency converter consists of an OPO pumped at 1064 nm to produce light at 1.6 \u03bcm and operates at 100 Hz pulse repetition frequency. The probe light is free space coupled to a movable platform that contains one transmitter and two receiver telescopes. Hybrid photon counting\/current systems increase the dynamic range for detection by two orders of magnitude. Range resolved and column integrated dry-air CO2 and CH4 mixing ratios are obtained from line shape fits of CO2 and CH4 centered at 1602.2 nm and 1645.5 nm, respectively, and measured at 10 different frequencies over \u22481.3 cm\u22121 bandwidth. The signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of the IPDA LIDAR returns from cloud aerosols approach 1000:1 and the uncertainties in the mixing ratios weighted according to the integrated counts over the cloud segments range from 0.1% to 1%. The range-averaged DIAL mixing ratios are in good agreement with the IPDA LIDAR mixing ratios at the 1% to 2% level for both CO2 and CH4. These results can serve as a validation method for future active and passive satellite observational systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15235595","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]],"date-time":"2023-12-01T08:36:59Z","timestamp":1701419819000},"page":"5595","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Multi-Frequency Differential Absorption LIDAR (DIAL) System for Aerosol and Cloud Retrievals of CO2\/H2O and CH4\/H2O"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0941-4424","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jasper R.","family":"Stroud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Physics Division, Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA"}]},{"given":"Gerd A.","family":"Wagner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Technical Physics, Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany"}]},{"given":"David F.","family":"Plusquellic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Physics Division, Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22345","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.394553","article-title":"Performance assessment of a coherent DIAL-Doppler fiber lidar at 1645 nm for remote sensing of methane and wind","volume":"28","author":"Cezard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.47.000944","article-title":"Side-line tunable laser transmitter for differential absorption lidar measurements of CO2: Design and application to atmospheric measurements","volume":"47","author":"Koch","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-6-387-2013","article-title":"An airborne amplitude-modulated 1.57 \u03bcm differential laser absorption spectrometer: Simultaneous measurement of partial column-averaged dry air mixing ratio of CO2 and target range","volume":"6","author":"Sakaizawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19420","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.019420","article-title":"Multi-frequency differential absorption LIDAR system for remote sensing of CO2 and H2O near 1.6 \u00b5m","volume":"26","author":"Wagner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"05045","DOI":"10.1051\/epjconf\/201817605045","article-title":"Atmospheric CO2 measurements with a 2-\u03bcm DIAL instrument","volume":"176","author":"Cadiou","year":"2018","journal-title":"EPJ Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.48.000748","article-title":"Development of a 1.6 \u03bcm differential absorption lidar with a quasi-phase-matching optical parametric oscillator and photon-counting detector for the vertical CO2 profile","volume":"48","author":"Sakaizawa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-008-3075-6","article-title":"Development of an OPO system at 1.57 \u03bcm for integrated path DIAL measurement of atmospheric carbon dioxide","volume":"92","author":"Amediek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-007-2892-3","article-title":"Space-borne remote sensing of CO2, CH4, and N2O by integrated path differential absorption lidar: A sensitivity analysis","volume":"90","author":"Ehret","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-2001-2018","article-title":"Airborne measurements of CO2 column concentrations made with a pulsed IPDA lidar using a multiple-wavelength-locked laser and HgCdTe APD detector","volume":"11","author":"Abshire","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2874","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.52.002874","article-title":"Atmospheric CO2 column measurements with an airborne intensity-modulated continuous wave 1.57 um fiber laser lidar","volume":"52","author":"Dobler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6292","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.55.006292","article-title":"Ground-based, integrated path differential absorption LIDAR measurement of CO2, CH4, and H2O near 1.6 \u03bcm","volume":"55","author":"Wagner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yue, B., Yu, S., Li, M., Wei, T., Yuan, J., Zhang, Z., Dong, J., Jiang, Y., Yang, Y., and Gao, Z. (2022). Local-scale horizontal CO2 flux estimation incorporating differential absorption lidar and coherent Doppler wind lidar. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14205150"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stroud, J.R., Dienstfrey, W.J., and Plusquellic, D.F. (2023). Study on local power plant emissions using multi-frequency differential absorption LIDAR and real time plume tracking. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15174283"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5182","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.56.005182","article-title":"CHARM-F a new airborne integrated-path differential-absorption lidar for carbon dioxide and methane observations: Measurement performance and quantification of strong point source emissions","volume":"56","author":"Amediek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8296","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.51.008296","article-title":"Airborne measurements of atmospheric methane column abundance using a pulsed integrated-path differential absorption lidar","volume":"51","author":"Riris","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ehret, G., Bousquet, P., Pierangelo, C., Alpers, M., Millet, B., Abshire, J.B., Bovensmann, H., Burrows, J.P., Chevallier, F., and Ciais, P. (2017). MERLIN: A French-German space lidar mission dedicated to atmospheric methane. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9101052"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Bode, M., Alpers, M., Millet, B., Ehret, G., and Flamant, P. (2014, January 7\u201310). MERLIN: An integrated path differential absorption (IPDA) LIDAR for global methane remote sensing. Proceedings of the International Conference on Space Optics (ICSO), Tenerife, Spain."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-127-2018","article-title":"Measurement of atmospheric CO2 column concentrations to cloud tops with a pulsed multi-wavelength airborne lidar","volume":"11","author":"Mao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Durand, Y., Caron, J., Bensi, P., Ingmann, P., B\u00e9zy, J., and Meynart, R. (2009, January 19\u201323). A-SCOPE: Concepts for an ESA mission to measure CO2 from space with a lidar. Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Tropospheric Profiling, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11766","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD028907","article-title":"Error budget of the Methane Remote LIdar missioN and its impact on the uncertainties of the global methane budget","volume":"123","author":"Bousquet","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"01009","DOI":"10.1051\/epjconf\/201817601009","article-title":"Development of an advanced two-micron triple-pulse IPDA LIDAR for carbon dioxide and water vapor measurements","volume":"176","author":"Petros","year":"2018","journal-title":"EPJ Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Stroud, J.R., Wagner, G.A., and Plusquellic, D.F. (2022). CLEO. Paper JW3A.18."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2454","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.52.002454","article-title":"High-power Ti:sapphire laser at 820 nm for scanning ground-based water\u2013vapor differential absorption lidar","volume":"52","author":"Wagner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Certain commercial equipment, instruments, or materials are identified in this paper in order to specify the experimental procedure adequately. Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by NIST, nor is it intended to imply that the materials or equipment identified are necessarily the best available for the purpose."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00702605","article-title":"Laser phase and frequency stabilization using an optical resonator","volume":"31","author":"Drever","year":"1983","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B Laser Opt."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7360","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025024","article-title":"Precise methane absorption measurements in the 1.64 \u03bcm spectral region for the MERLIN mission","volume":"121","author":"Delahaye","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2023.108483","article-title":"Temperature dependence of the absorption of the R(6) manifold of the 2 \u03bd3 band of methane in air in support of the MERLIN mission","volume":"298","author":"Vasilchenko","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.35.001464","article-title":"Absolute frequency stabilization of an injection-seeded optical parametric oscillator","volume":"35","author":"Plusquellic","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3903","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.48.003903","article-title":"Simultaneous analog and photon counting detection for Raman lidar","volume":"48","author":"Newsom","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-35-2019","article-title":"Using a speed-dependent Voigt line shape to retrieve O2 from Total Carbon Column Observing Network solar spectra to improve measurements of XCO2","volume":"12","author":"Mendonca","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2021.107949","article-title":"The HITRAN2020 Molecular spectroscopic database","volume":"277","author":"Gordon","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"NOAA, NASA, and USAF (2023, November 28). U.S. Standard Atmosphere, Available online: https:\/\/www.ngdc.noaa.gov\/stp\/space-weather\/online-publications\/miscellaneous\/us-standard-atmosphere-1976\/us-standard-atmosphere_st76-1562_noaa.pdf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"054202","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5018611","article-title":"Feed-forward coherent link from a comb to a diode laser: Application to widely tunable cavity ring-down spectroscopy","volume":"148","author":"Gotti","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2019.06.027","article-title":"Accurate absorption spectroscopy of water vapor near 1.64 \u03bcm in support of the MEthane Remote LIdar missioN (MERLIN)","volume":"235","author":"Vasilchenko","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2013.05.034","article-title":"An isolated line-shape model to go beyond the Voigt profile in spectroscopic databases and radiative transfer codes","volume":"129","author":"Ngo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7501","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.57.007501","article-title":"Energy calibration of integrated path differential absorption lidars","volume":"57","author":"Fix","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3909","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-14-3909-2021","article-title":"Retrieval algorithm for the column CO2 mixing ratio from pulsed multi-wavelength lidar measurements","volume":"14","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16519","DOI":"10.1029\/95JD01386","article-title":"Line-by-line calculation of atmospheric fluxes and cooling rates 2. Application to carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and the halocarbons","volume":"100","author":"Clough","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2015.12.015","article-title":"Mesaurements of H2O broadening coefficients of infrared methane lines","volume":"173","author":"Delahaye","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5185","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.500652","article-title":"Precision Doppler shift measurements with a frequency comb calibrated laser heterodyne radiometer","volume":"48","author":"Cole","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3829","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-23-3829-2023","article-title":"Technical note: The CAMS greenhouse gas reanalysis from 2003 to 2020","volume":"23","author":"Massart","year":"2023","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33155","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.434482","article-title":"Interleaved electro-optic dual comb generation to expand bandwidth and scan rate for molecular spectroscopy and dynamics studies near 1.6 \u03bcm","volume":"29","author":"Stroud","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/23\/5595\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:36:10Z","timestamp":1760132170000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/23\/5595"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15235595"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15235595","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]}}}