{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,27]],"date-time":"2025-12-27T07:32:57Z","timestamp":1766820777936,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]],"date-time":"2023-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701388800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Pro-tection Independent Research Project","award":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"]}]},{"name":"Sichuan Science and Technology Program","award":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"]}]},{"name":"China Scholarship Council (CSC)","award":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3007104","41931296","SKLGP2021Z014","2022NSFSC1121","202309230007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Deep, unstable slopes are highly developed in mountainous areas, especially in the Minjiang River Basin, Sichuan Province, China. In this study, to reveal their deformation evolution characteristics for stability evaluation and disaster prevention, multi-period optical remote sensing images (2010\u20132019), SBAS-InSAR data (January 2018\u2013December 2019), and on-site real-time monitoring (December 2017\u2013September 2020) were utilized to monitor the deformation of a large deep-seated toppling, named the Tizicao (TZC) Toppling. The obtained results by different techniques were cross-validated and synthesized in order to introduce the spatial and temporal characteristics of the toppling. It was found that the displacements on the north side of the toppling are much larger than those on the south side, and the leading edge exhibits a composite damage pattern of \u201ccollapse failure\u201d and \u201cbulging cracking\u201d. The development process of the toppling from the formation of a tensile crack at the northern leading edge to the gradual pulling of the rear edge was revealed for a time span of up to ten years. In addition, the correlation between rainfall, earthquakes, and GNSS time series showed that the deformation of the toppling is sensitive to rainfall but does not change under the effect of earthquakes. The surface-displacement-monitoring method in this study can provide a reference for the evolution analysis of unstable slopes with a large span of deformation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15235596","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]],"date-time":"2023-12-01T08:36:59Z","timestamp":1701419819000},"page":"5596","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Research on Deformation Evolution of a Large Toppling Based on Comprehensive Remote Sensing Interpretation and Real-Time Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6638-230X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shenghua","family":"Cui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"},{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands"}]},{"given":"Xiangjun","family":"Pei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}]},{"given":"Luguang","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth Sciences and Spatial Information Engineering, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0479-8702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bin","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of River and Ocean Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2021.106455","article-title":"Liquefaction within a bedding fault: Understanding the initiation and movement of the Daguangbao landslide triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake (Ms = 8.0)","volume":"295","author":"Cui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-011-0403-6","article-title":"Mechanisms of large-scale landslides in China","volume":"71","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-021-01635-3","article-title":"Integrated use of archival aerial photogrammetry, GNSS, and InSAR data for the monitoring of the Patigno landslide (Northern Apennines, Italy)","volume":"18","author":"Cenni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Z., Zhang, J., Li, Z., Wu, F., and Ho, K. (2008). Landslides and Engineered Slopes: From the Past to the Future, Taylor & Francis.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203885284"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2017.09.024","article-title":"Effects of soil deformation and saturation on elastic wave velocities in relation to prediction of rain-induced landslides","volume":"230","author":"Irfan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-7952(02)00230-2","article-title":"Analysis of the Chiufengershan landslide triggered by the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan","volume":"68","author":"Shou","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2015.01.004","article-title":"Evaluation of landslide mechanisms characterized by high-speed mass ejection and long-run-out based on events following theWenchuan earthquake","volume":"194","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-009-0142-y","article-title":"Some catastrophic landslides since the twentieth century in the southwest of China","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4311","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-018-1406-3","article-title":"Analysis of deformation mechanism of landslide in complex geological conditions","volume":"78","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0560-y","article-title":"A large-scale colluvial landslide caused by multiple factors: Mechanism analysis and phased stabilization","volume":"13","author":"Song","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2010.01.001","article-title":"Kinematic behaviour and velocity characteristics of a complex deep-seated crystalline rockslide system in relation to its interaction with a dam reservoir","volume":"112","author":"Zangerl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0592-3","article-title":"Functioning and precipitation-displacement modelling of rainfall-induced deep-seated landslides subject to creep deformation","volume":"13","author":"Vallet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2020.105781","article-title":"Landslide evolution assessment based on InSAR and real-time monitoring of a large reactivated landslide, Wenchuan, China","volume":"277","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2014.889046","article-title":"Performance of low-cost GNSS receiver for landslides monitoring: Test and results, Geomatics","volume":"6","author":"Cina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2019.05.017","article-title":"Characterization of pre- and post-failure displacements of the Huangnibazi landslide in Li County with multi-source satellite observations","volume":"257","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2006.09.007","article-title":"Permanent scatterers for landslide investigations: Outcomes from the ERS-SLAM project","volume":"88","author":"Farina","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E06S16","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JE002593","article-title":"Detecting slope deformation using two-pass differential interferometry: Implications for landslide studies on Earth and other planetary bodies","volume":"111","author":"Bulmer","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2010.01.003","article-title":"Advanced low- and full-resolution DInSAR map generation for slow-moving landslide analysis at different scales","volume":"112","author":"Cascini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.05.025","article-title":"Large-area landslides detection and monitoring with ALOS\/PALSAR imagery data over Northern California and Southern Oregon, USA","volume":"124","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1952","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1098821","article-title":"Dynamics of slow-moving landslides from permanent scatterer analysis","volume":"304","author":"Hilley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L19402","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL040374","article-title":"Using DInSAR, airborne LiDAR, and archival air photos to quantify landsliding and sediment transport","volume":"36","author":"Roering","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Stimely, L.L. (2009). Characterizing Landslide Movement at the Boulder Creek Earthflow, Northern California, Using L-Band InSAR. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Department of Geological Sciences, Graduate School of the University of Oregon]."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F02020","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JF001314","article-title":"An examination of seasonal deformation at the Portuguese Bend landslide, southern California, using radar interferometry","volume":"115","author":"Calabro","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.70.10.1167","article-title":"Landslide monitoring in the Three Gorges area using D-INSAR and corner reflectors","volume":"70","author":"Xia","year":"2004","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6387","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903413713","article-title":"Landslide monitoring by corner reflectors differentialinterferometry SAR","volume":"31","author":"Fu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.11.003","article-title":"Enhanced landslide investigations through advanced DInSAR techniques: The Ivancich case study, Assisi, Italy","volume":"142","author":"Ardizzone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3681","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5083681","article-title":"Slope Stability Assessment of the Sarcheshmeh Landslide, Northeast Iran, Investigated Using InSAR and GPS Observations","volume":"5","author":"Motagh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2019.03.014","article-title":"Combination of GNSS, satellite InSAR, and GBInSAR remote sensing monitoring to improve the understanding of a large landslide in high alpine environment","volume":"335","author":"Tofani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8285","DOI":"10.3390\/s130708285","article-title":"ADVICE: A new approach for near-real-time monitoring of surface displacements in landslide hazard scenarios","volume":"13","author":"Allasia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2020.105518","article-title":"Comparing characteristics of rainfall and earthquake triggered landslides in the upper Minjiang catchment, China","volume":"268","author":"Bai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-6724.2007.tb00983.x","article-title":"Active tectonics of the Longmen Shan region on the eastern Margin of the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"81","author":"Zhou","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta. Geol. Sin. Engl. Ed."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(2000)112<375:NOTMSC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Neotectonics of the Min Shan, China: Implications for mechanisms driving Quaternary deformation along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"112","author":"Kirby","year":"2000","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2000TC001246","article-title":"Late Cenozoic evolution of the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau: Inferences from 40Ar\/39Ar and (U-Th)\/He thermochronology","volume":"21","author":"Kirby","year":"2002","journal-title":"Tectonics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-016-2212-5","article-title":"Using new models to assess probabilistic seismic hazard of the North\u2013South Seismic Zone in China","volume":"82","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5635","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-019-01480-8","article-title":"The role of active faults and sliding mechanism analysis of the 2017 Maoxian postseismic landslide in Sichuan, China","volume":"78","author":"Shao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.07.019","article-title":"Monitoring surface deformation over permafrost with an improved SBAS-InSAR algorithm: With emphasis on climatic factors modeling","volume":"184","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-019-01305-5","article-title":"A late Pleistocene riverdamming landslide, Minjiang River, China","volume":"17","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Xie, M., Zhao, J., and Ju, N. (2019). Study on the Temporal and Spatial Evolution of Landslide Based on Multisource Data\u2014A Case Study of Huangnibazi Landslide in Lixian County, Geomatics and Information Science of Wuhan University."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-011-4640-5","article-title":"Some new pre-warning criteria for creep slope failure","volume":"54","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sci. China Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-022-10314-y","article-title":"Geology amplification of the seismic response of a large deep-seated rock slope revealed by field monitoring and geophysical methods","volume":"81","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/23\/5596\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:36:10Z","timestamp":1760132170000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/23\/5596"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15235596"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15235596","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]]}}}