{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T20:30:16Z","timestamp":1776457816314,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]],"date-time":"2023-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) Research Fund for International Young Scientists","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42250410331"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42250410331"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) Research Fund for International Young Scientists","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["123E372"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["123E372"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004410","name":"TUBITAK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42250410331"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42250410331"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004410","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004410","name":"TUBITAK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["123E372"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["123E372"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004410","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Earthquakes occur all around the world, causing varying degrees of damage and destruction. Earthquakes are by their very nature a sudden phenomenon and predicting them with a precise time range is difficult. Some phenomena may be indicators of physical conditions favorable for large earthquakes (e.g., the ionospheric Total Electron Content (TEC)). The TEC is an important parameter used to detect pre-earthquake changes by measuring ionospheric disturbances and space weather indices, such as the global geomagnetic index (Kp), the storm duration distribution (Dst), the sunspot number (R), the geomagnetic storm index (Ap-index), the solar wind speed (Vsw), and the solar activity index (F10.7), have also been used to detect pre-earthquake ionospheric changes. In this study, the feasibility of the 6th-day earthquake prediction by the deep neural network technique using the previous five consecutive days is investigated. For this purpose, a two-staged approach is developed. In the first stage, various preprocessing steps, namely TEC signal improvement and time-frequency representation-based TEC image construction, are performed. In the second stage, a multi-input convolutional neural network (CNN) model is designed and trained in an end-to-end fashion. This multi-input CNN model has a total of six inputs, and five of the inputs are designed as 2D and the sixth is a 1D vector. The 2D inputs to the multi-input CNN model are TEC images and the vector input is concatenated space weather indices. The network branches with the 2D inputs contain convolution, batch normalization, and Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU) activation layers, and the branch with the 1D input contains a ReLU activation layer. The ReLU activation outputs of all the branches are flattened and then concatenated. And the classification is performed via fully connected, softmax, and classification layers, respectively. In the experimental work, earthquakes with a magnitude of Mw5.0 and above that occurred in Turkey between 2012 and 2019 are used as the dataset. The TEC data were recorded by the Turkey National Permanent GNSS Network-Active (TNPGN-Active) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) stations. The TEC data five days before the earthquake were marked as \u201cprecursor days\u201d and the TEC data five days after the earthquake were marked as \u201cnormal days\u201d. In total, 75% of the dataset is used to train the proposed method and 25% of the dataset is used for testing. The classification accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and F1-score values are obtained for performance evaluations. The results are promising, and an 89.31% classification accuracy is obtained.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15245690","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]],"date-time":"2023-12-11T13:18:21Z","timestamp":1702300701000},"page":"5690","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["A Multi-Input Convolutional Neural Networks Model for Earthquake Precursor Detection Based on Ionospheric Total Electron Content"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6870-7569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hakan","family":"Uyan\u0131k","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical-Electronics Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Munzur University, Tunceli 62000, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0833-7113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erman","family":"\u015eent\u00fcrk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geomatics Engineering, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli 41001, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7563-0937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammed Halil","family":"Akp\u0131nar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Automation, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul 34098, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7929-7542","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salih T. A.","family":"Ozcelik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical-Electronics Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Bingol University, Bingol 12000, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5149-3931","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehmet","family":"Kokum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geological Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Firat University, Elazig 23119, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3539-7450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Freeshah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Geomatics Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra, Benha University, 108 Shoubra St., Cairo 11629, Egypt"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1614-2639","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulkadir","family":"Sengur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical-Electronics Engineering Department, Technology Faculty, Firat University, Elazig 23119, Turkey"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2005.02.014","article-title":"The acoustic field in the ionosphere caused by an underground nuclear explosion","volume":"67","author":"Krasnov","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. 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