{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T07:34:20Z","timestamp":1772609660715,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]],"date-time":"2023-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702252800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41974019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41974019"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42274115"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274115"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["GLAB2022ZR04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GLAB2022ZR04"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["GLAB2023ZR04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GLAB2023ZR04"]}]},{"name":"Opening Fund of Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education","award":["41974019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41974019"]}]},{"name":"Opening Fund of Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education","award":["42274115"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274115"]}]},{"name":"Opening Fund of Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education","award":["GLAB2022ZR04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GLAB2022ZR04"]}]},{"name":"Opening Fund of Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education","award":["GLAB2023ZR04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GLAB2023ZR04"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Groundwater depletion is adversely affecting Beijing\u2019s ecology and environment. However, the effective execution of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project\u2019s middle route (SNDWP-MR) is anticipated to mitigate Beijing\u2019s groundwater depletion. Here, we propose a robust hybrid statistical downscaling method aimed at enhancing the capability of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) to detect the small-scale groundwater storage anomaly (GWSA) in Beijing. We used three deep learning (DL) methods to reconstruct the 0.5\u00b0 \u00d7 0.5\u00b0 terrestrial water storage anomaly (TWSA) between 2004 and 2021. Moreover, multiple processing strategies were used to downscale the GWSA to 0.25\u00b0 from 2004 to 2021 by integrating wells and GRACE\/GRACE follow-on data from the optimal DL model. Additionally, we analyzed the spatiotemporal evolution trends of GW in Beijing before and after the implementation of the SNDWP-MR. The results show that the long short-term memory model delivers optimal performance in the TWSA reconstruction of Beijing, with the correlation coefficient (CC), Nash\u2013Sutcliffe coefficient (NSE), and root mean square error (RMSE) being 0.98, 0.96, and 10.19 mm, respectively. The GWSA before and after downscaling is basically consistent with wells data, but the CC and RMSE of downscaling the GWSA from 2004 to 2021 are improving by 34% and 31%, respectively. Before the SNDWP-MR (2004\u20132014), the trend of GWSA in Beijing was \u221217.68 \u00b1 4.46 mm\/y, with a human contribution of 69.30%. After SNDWP-MR (2015\u20132021), GWSA gradually increased by 10.00 mm per year, with the SNDWP-MR accounting for 18.30%. This study delivers a technical innovation reference for dynamically monitoring a small-scale GWSA from GRACE\/GRACE-FO data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15245692","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]],"date-time":"2023-12-11T13:18:21Z","timestamp":1702300701000},"page":"5692","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Integrating GRACE\/GRACE Follow-On and Wells Data to Detect Groundwater Storage Recovery at a Small-Scale in Beijing Using Deep Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ying","family":"Hu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Marine Science and Technology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Marine Geological Resources, Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"given":"Nengfang","family":"Chao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Marine Science and Technology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Marine Geological Resources, Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Water Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100048, China"}]},{"given":"Jiangyuan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Marine Science and Technology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Marine Geological Resources, Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"given":"Wenjie","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Satellite Application Center for Ecology and Environment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5396-6456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingkai","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Guangyao","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Water Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100048, China"}]},{"given":"Menglin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Water Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100048, China"}]},{"given":"Xuewen","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Marine Science and Technology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Marine Geological Resources, Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]},{"given":"Fupeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3858-0640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhengtao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Guichong","family":"Ouyang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Marine Science and Technology, Hubei Key Laboratory of Marine Geological Resources, Key Laboratory of Geological Survey and Evaluation of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1002\/wrcr.20192","article-title":"Evaluation of Groundwater Depletion in North China Using the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) Data and Ground-Based Measurements","volume":"49","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. 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