{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T15:47:54Z","timestamp":1766159274445,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]],"date-time":"2023-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702339200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program","award":["2019QZKK0405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019QZKK0405"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vegetation is an essential component of terrestrial ecosystems and supplies multiple ecosystem benefits and services. Several indices have been used to monitor changes in vegetation communities using remotely-sensed data. However, only a few studies have conducted a comparative analysis of different indices concerning vegetation greenness variation. Additionally, there have been oversights in assessing the change in greenness of evergreen woody species. In this study, we used the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), the enhanced vegetation index (EVI), the near-infrared reflectance of terrestrial vegetation (NIRv), and the leaf area index (LAI) data derived from MODIS data to examine spatial and temporal change in vegetation greenness in the growing season (May\u2013September) and then evaluated the evergreen vegetation greenness change using winter (December\u2013February) greenness using trend analysis and consistency assessment methods between 2000 and 2022 on the Tibetan Plateau, China. The results found that vegetation greenness increased in 80% of pixels during the growing season (northeastern, central-eastern, and northwestern regions). Nevertheless, a decline in the southwestern and central-southern areas was identified. Similar trends in greenness were also observed in winter in about 80% of pixels. Consistency analyses based on the four indexes showed that vegetation growth was enhanced by 29% and 30% of pixels in the growing season and winter, respectively. Further, there was relatively strong consistency among the different vegetation indexes, particularly between the NIRv and EVI. The LAI was less consistent with the other indexes. These findings emphasize the importance of selecting an appropriate index when monitoring long-term temporal trends over large spatial scales.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15245697","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]],"date-time":"2023-12-12T05:23:22Z","timestamp":1702358602000},"page":"5697","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Multiple Greenness Indexes Revealed the Vegetation Greening during the Growing Season and Winter on the Tibetan Plateau despite Regional Variations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6014-4642","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinxia","family":"Lv","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Wenwu","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Ting","family":"Hua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Lihao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Paulo","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Management Center, Mykolas Romeris University, Ateities g. 20, 08303 Vilnius, Lithuania"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2022.127636","article-title":"Remote Sensing for the Assessment of Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Vegetation: A Review of the Methods Applied","volume":"74","year":"2022","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-020-00980-3","article-title":"Grassland Ecosystem Services: A Systematic Review of Research Advances and Future Directions","volume":"35","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-019-0001-x","article-title":"Characteristics, Drivers and Feedbacks of Global Greening","volume":"1","author":"Piao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4621","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18479-5","article-title":"Summer Warming Explains Widespread but Not Uniform Greening in the Arctic Tundra Biome","volume":"11","author":"Berner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2020.107950","article-title":"Shift in the Trend of Browning in Southwestern Tibetan Plateau in the Past Two Decades","volume":"287","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020EF001618","DOI":"10.1029\/2020EF001618","article-title":"Nearly Half of Global Vegetated Area Experienced Inconsistent Vegetation Growth in Terms of Greenness, Cover, and Productivity","volume":"8","author":"Ding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth\u2019s Future"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1155121","article-title":"Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests","volume":"320","author":"Bonan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2019.03.020","article-title":"Spatial, Temporal, and Spectral Variations in Albedo Due to Vegetation Changes in China\u2019s Grasslands","volume":"152","author":"Zheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-019-02885-x","article-title":"Understanding the Contribution of the Vegetation-Runoff System for Simulating the African Climate Using the Regcm4 Model","volume":"138","author":"Anwar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-022-06345-7","article-title":"Bayesian Retro-and Prospective Assessment of Cmip6 Climatology in Pan Third Pole Region","volume":"60","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-022-00299-4","article-title":"The Imbalance of the Asian Water Tower","volume":"3","author":"Yao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7540","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD030481","article-title":"Climate Change Trends and Impacts on Vegetation Greening over the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"124","author":"Zhong","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9299","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1504418112","article-title":"Evaporative Cooling over the Tibetan Plateau Induced by Vegetation Growth","volume":"112","author":"Shen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21271","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78182-9","article-title":"Vegetation Degradation Impacts Soil Nutrients and Enzyme Activities in Wet Meadow on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-010-0863-6","article-title":"The Relation of Vegetation over the Tibetan Plateau to Rainfall in China During the Boreal Summer","volume":"36","author":"Zuo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-012-1500-4","article-title":"The Impact of Land Degradation on the C Pools in Alpine Grasslands of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"368","author":"Wen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-021-09400-5","article-title":"Vegetation Attributes and Soil Properties of Alpine Grassland in Different Degradation Stages on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"15","author":"She","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Wu, L., Huang, G., Zhu, W., and Zhang, Y. (2011). The Role of May Vegetation Greenness on the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau for East Asian Summer Monsoon Prediction. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD015095"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, Y., Zhang, M., Meng, Z., Liu, S., Sun, P., and Yang, T. (2018). Assessing the Impact of Forest Change and Climate Variability on Dry Season Runoff by an Improved Single Watershed Approach: A Comparative Study in Two Large Watersheds, China. Forests, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/f9010046"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2017.1381192","article-title":"Large-Scale Estimates of Gross Primary Production on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Based on Remote Sensing Data","volume":"11","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Cui, G., Liu, X., Zheng, K., Lu, Z., Li, H., Wang, G., and An, Z. (2021). Greening of the Qinghai\u2013Tibet Plateau and Its Response to Climate Variations Along Elevation Gradients. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13183712"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2021.101413","article-title":"Regional-Scale Vegetation-Climate Interactions on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"65","author":"Diao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Inform."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1007\/s41324-018-0211-1","article-title":"The Use of Remote Sensing Indices for Detecting Environmental Changes: A Case Study of North Sinai, Egypt","volume":"26","author":"Samra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Spat. Inf. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-022-00298-5","article-title":"Optical Vegetation Indices for Monitoring Terrestrial Ecosystems Globally","volume":"3","author":"Zeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597971","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2021.597971","article-title":"Local Climatic Factors Mediated Impacts of Large-Scale Climate Oscillations on the Growth of Vegetation across the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2023.109546","article-title":"Large Discrepancies among Remote Sensing Indices for Characterizing Vegetation Growth Dynamics in Nepal","volume":"339","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiao, K., Gao, J., and Liu, Z. (2021). Precipitation Drives the Ndvi Distribution on the Tibetan Plateau While High Warming Rates May Intensify Its Ecological Droughts. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13071305"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.accre.2021.04.004","article-title":"Change in Drought Conditions and Its Impacts on Vegetation Growth over the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Clim. Change Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Yan, F., and Lu, Q. (2020). Spatiotemporal Variation of Vegetation on the Qinghai\u2013Tibet Plateau and the Influence of Climatic Factors and Human Activities on Vegetation Trend (2000\u20132019). Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12193150"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Zhang, Y., Liu, L., Wu, J., Wang, Z., Li, S., Zhang, H., Zu, J., Ding, M., and Paudel, B. (2018). Spatiotemporal Patterns of Vegetation Greenness Change and Associated Climatic and Anthropogenic Drivers on the Tibetan Plateau During 2000\u20132015. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10101525"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1080\/15481603.2021.1879494","article-title":"The Impact of Indicator Selection on Assessment of Global Greening","volume":"58","author":"Qiu","year":"2021","journal-title":"GIScience Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34687","DOI":"10.1038\/srep34687","article-title":"Forest Biomass Carbon Stocks and Variation in Tibet\u2019s Carbon-Dense Forests from 2001 to 2050","volume":"6","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4380","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1520582113","article-title":"Species Interactions Slow Warming-Induced Upward Shifts of Treelines on the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"113","author":"Liang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"054011","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab7b9b","article-title":"Warming-Induced Unprecedented High-Elevation Forest Growth over the Monsoonal Tibetan Plateau","volume":"15","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2016.11.017","article-title":"Does Increasing Intrinsic Water Use Efficiency (Iwue) Stimulate Tree Growth at Natural Alpine Timberline on the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau?","volume":"148","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-020-03169-5","article-title":"Tree Ring\u2013Based Minimum Temperature Reconstruction in the Central Hengduan Mountains, China","volume":"141","author":"Keyimu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1007\/s00484-016-1148-5","article-title":"Topography and Age Mediate the Growth Responses of Smith Fir to Climate Warming in the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau","volume":"60","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2010.03.020","article-title":"Tree-Ring Based Annual Precipitation Reconstruction since Ad 1480 in South Central Tibet","volume":"236","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2018.10.002","article-title":"Growth Response of Alpine Treeline Forests to a Warmer and Drier Climate on the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau","volume":"264","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-015-1531-y","article-title":"Global Warming-Related Tree Growth Decline and Mortality on the North-Eastern Tibetan Plateau","volume":"134","author":"Liang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1093\/aob\/mcr315","article-title":"Annual Increments of Juniper Dwarf Shrubs above the Tree Line on the Central Tibetan Plateau: A Useful Climatic Proxy","volume":"109","author":"Liang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Bot."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwab, N., Kaczka, R., Janecka, K., B\u00f6hner, J., Chaudhary, R., Scholten, T., and Schickhoff, U. (2018). Climate Change-Induced Shift of Tree Growth Sensitivity at a Central Himalayan Treeline Ecotone. Forests, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/f9050267"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sigdel, S.R., Dawadi, B., Camarero, J.J., Liang, E., and Leavitt, S.W. (2018). Moisture-Limited Tree Growth for a Subtropical Himalayan Conifer Forest in Western Nepal. Forests, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/f9060340"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8137.2010.03623.x","article-title":"Little Change in the Fir Tree-Line Position on the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau after 200 Years of Warming","volume":"190","author":"Liang","year":"2011","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1668","DOI":"10.1890\/15-1264.1","article-title":"Increased Stem Density and Competition May Diminish the Positive Effects of Warming at Alpine Treeline","volume":"97","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2019.03.012","article-title":"Deciphering Impacts of Climate Extremes on Tibetan Grasslands in the Last Fifteen Years","volume":"64","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-004-0488-8","article-title":"Role of the Tibetan Plateau Thermal Forcing in the Summer Climate Patterns over Subtropical Asia","volume":"24","author":"Duan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwu045","article-title":"Tibetan Plateau Climate Dynamics: Recent Research Progress and Outlook","volume":"2","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM609.1","article-title":"The Influence of Mechanical and Thermal Forcing by the Tibetan Plateau on Asian Climate","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s13143-018-0056-5","article-title":"Simulated Long-Term Vegetation\u2013Climate Feedbacks in the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"55","author":"Hua","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asia-Pac. J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2020.04.004","article-title":"An Updated Vegetation Map of China (1:1000000)","volume":"65","author":"Su","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.12.013","article-title":"Hierarchical Mapping of Annual Global Land Cover 2001 to Present: The Modis Collection 6 Land Cover Product","volume":"222","author":"Gray","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1602244","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1602244","article-title":"Canopy near-Infrared Reflectance and Terrestrial Photosynthesis","volume":"3","author":"Badgley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00096-2","article-title":"Overview of the Radiometric and Biophysical Performance of the Modis Vegetation Indices","volume":"83","author":"Huete","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00074-3","article-title":"Global Products of Vegetation Leaf Area and Fraction Absorbed Par from Year One of Modis Data","volume":"83","author":"Myneni","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Didan, K. (2022, October 12). MODIS\/Terra Vegetation Indices 16-Day L3 Global 500 m SIN Grid V061 [Data set]. NASA EOSDIS Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center. 2021, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/products\/mod13a1v061\/."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Myneni, R., Knyazikhin, Y., and Park, T. (2022, October 12). MODIS\/Terra Leaf Area Index\/FPAR 8-Day L4 Global 500 m SIN Grid V061 [Data Set]. NASA EOSDIS Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center. 2021, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/products\/mod15a2hv061\/."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11640","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1900278116","article-title":"Mechanistic Evidence for Tracking the Seasonality of Photosynthesis with Solar-Induced Fluorescence","volume":"116","author":"Magney","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-17-405-2020","article-title":"A Double Peak in the Seasonality of California\u2019s Photosynthesis as Observed from Space","volume":"17","author":"Turner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5779","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-15-5779-2018","article-title":"A Global Spatially Contiguous Solar-Induced Fluorescence (Csif) Dataset Using Neural Networks","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1038\/514434c","article-title":"Open Access to Earth Land-Cover Map","volume":"514","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Friedl, M., and Sulla-Menashe, D. (2022, October 12). MODIS\/Terra+Aqua Land Cover Type Yearly L3 Global 500 m SIN Grid V061 [Data Set]. NASA EOSDIS Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center. 2022, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/products\/mcd12q1v061\/."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Hall, D.K., and Riggs, G.A. (2023, March 15). MODIS\/Terra Snow Cover Daily L3 Global 500 m SIN Grid, Version 61 [Data Set]. Boulder, Colorado USA. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center. 2021, Available online: https:\/\/nsidc.org\/data\/mod10a1\/versions\/61."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riggs, G., and Hall, D. (2020). Continuity of Modis and Viirs Snow Cover Extent Data Products for Development of an Earth Science Data Record. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12223781"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.05.355","article-title":"Quantifying Influences of Natural Factors on Vegetation Ndvi Changes Based on Geographical Detector in Sichuan, Western China","volume":"233","author":"Peng","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.1111\/geb.13581","article-title":"Warming Does Not Delay the Start of Autumnal Leaf Coloration but Slows Its Progress Rate","volume":"31","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.07.008","article-title":"Detecting Trends in Forest Disturbance and Recovery Using Yearly Landsat Time Series: 1. Landtrendr\u2014Temporal Segmentation Algorithms","volume":"114","author":"Kennedy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-020-0806-0","article-title":"Light Limitation Regulates the Response of Autumn Terrestrial Carbon Uptake to Warming","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2023.109440","article-title":"Spatial Variations in the Response of Spring Onset of Photosynthesis of Evergreen Vegetation to Climate Factors across the Tibetan Plateau: The Roles of Interactions between Temperature, Precipitation, and Solar Radiation","volume":"335","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177698021","article-title":"Robustness of Some Nonparametric Procedures in Linear Models","volume":"39","author":"Sen","year":"1968","journal-title":"Ann. Math. Stat."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"173","article-title":"A Rank-Invariant Method of Linear and Polynomial Regression Analysis","volume":"12","author":"Theil","year":"1950","journal-title":"Indag. Math."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2022.104421","article-title":"Effectiveness of Protected Areas Edges on Vegetation Greenness, Cover and Productivity on the Tibetan Plateau, China","volume":"224","author":"Hua","year":"2022","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2019.02.023","article-title":"The Impact of Class Imbalance in Classification Performance Metrics Based on the Binary Confusion Matrix","volume":"91","author":"Luque","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Towers, P.C., Strever, A., and Poblete-Echeverr\u00eda, C. (2019). Comparison of Vegetation Indices for Leaf Area Index Estimation in Vertical Shoot Positioned Vine Canopies with and without Grenbiule Hail-Protection Netting. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11091073"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.107092","article-title":"Detecting Drought-Induced Gpp Spatiotemporal Variabilities with Sun-Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence During the 2009\/2010 Droughts in China","volume":"121","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Z., Ding, Y., Liu, S., Wang, Y., Fu, Q., and Shi, H. (2022). Estimating the Applicability of Ndvi and Sif to Gross Primary Productivity and Grain-Yield Monitoring in China. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14133237"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"e01512","article-title":"Different Response of Alpine Meadow and Alpine Steppe to Climatic and Anthropogenic Disturbance on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau","volume":"27","author":"Hao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2022.109233","article-title":"Biophysical Impacts of Vegetation Dynamics Largely Contribute to Climate Mitigation in High Mountain Asia","volume":"327","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.162345","article-title":"Upgrading Protected Areas Can Improve or Reverse the Decline in Conservation Effectiveness: Evidence from the Tibetan Plateau, China","volume":"873","author":"Hua","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Total Env."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, B., Zhang, Y., Wang, Z., Ding, M., Liu, L., Li, L., Li, S., Liu, Q., Paudel, B., and Zhang, H. (2021). Factors Driving Changes in Vegetation in Mt. Qomolangma (Everest): Implications for the Management of Protected Areas. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13224725"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2015.06.031","article-title":"Human-Induced Grassland Degradation\/Restoration in the Central Tibetan Plateau: The Effects of Ecological Protection and Restoration Projects","volume":"83","author":"Cai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.14919","article-title":"Vegetation Expansion in the Subnival Hindu Kush Himalaya","volume":"26","author":"Anderson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/s43247-022-00374-0","article-title":"Warming, Increase in Precipitation, and Irrigation Enhance Greening in High Mountain Asia","volume":"3","author":"Maina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Commun. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Li, D., Ren, P., Sigdel, S.R., and Camarero, J.J. (2022). Heterogeneous Responses of Alpine Treelines to Climate Warming across the Tibetan Plateau. Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13050788"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.157729","article-title":"Ecological Restoration Programs Dominate Vegetation Greening in China","volume":"848","author":"Wenqi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2454","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.4323","article-title":"Shrub Encroachment Impaired the Structure and Functioning of Alpine Meadow Communities on the Qinghai\u2013Tibetan Plateau","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-12-653-2015","article-title":"Recent Trends and Drivers of Regional Sources and Sinks of Carbon Dioxide","volume":"12","author":"Sitch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/24\/5697\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:37:11Z","timestamp":1760132231000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/24\/5697"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15245697"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15245697","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]]}}}