{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:33:48Z","timestamp":1760142828693,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,3]],"date-time":"2024-01-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704240000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key Research and Development Program of Guangdong Province","award":["2020B1111020003","2022YFF0802000","SML2020SP009","41976007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020B1111020003","2022YFF0802000","SML2020SP009","41976007"]}]},{"name":"National Basic Research and Development Project of China","award":["2020B1111020003","2022YFF0802000","SML2020SP009","41976007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020B1111020003","2022YFF0802000","SML2020SP009","41976007"]}]},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["2020B1111020003","2022YFF0802000","SML2020SP009","41976007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020B1111020003","2022YFF0802000","SML2020SP009","41976007"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2020B1111020003","2022YFF0802000","SML2020SP009","41976007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020B1111020003","2022YFF0802000","SML2020SP009","41976007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The performance of a high-frequency (HF) radar network situated within the Pearl River Estuary from 17 July to 13 August 2022 is described via a comparison with seven acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs). The radar network consists of six OSMAR-S100 compact HF radars, with a transmitting frequency of 13\u201316 MHz and a direction-finding technique. Both the radial currents and vector velocities showed good agreement with the ADCP results (coefficient of determination r2: 0.42\u20130.78; RMS difference of radials: 11\u201321.6 cm\u00a0s\u22121; bearing offset \u0394\u03b8: \u22124.8\u00b0\u201316.1\u00b0; complex correlation coefficient \u03b3: 0.62\u20130.96; and phase angle \u03b1: \u221224.3\u00b0\u201317.8\u00b0). For these radars, the \u0394\u03b8 values are not constant but vary with azimuthal angles. The relative positions between the HF radar and ADCPs, as well as factors such as the presence of island terrain obstructing the signal, significantly influence the errors. The results of spectral analysis also demonstrate a high level of consistency and the capability of HF radar to capture diurnal and semidiurnal tidal frequencies. The tidal characteristics and the Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) results measured by the HF radars also resemble the ADCPs and align with the characteristics of the estuarine current field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16010198","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,3]],"date-time":"2024-01-03T11:31:50Z","timestamp":1704281510000},"page":"198","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Performance Assessment of a High-Frequency Radar Network for Detecting Surface Currents in the Pearl River Estuary"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Langfeng","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Climate Change and Natural Disaster Studies, Key Laboratory of Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean System, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 519082, China"}]},{"given":"Tianyi","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Climate Change and Natural Disaster Studies, Key Laboratory of Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean System, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 519082, China"}]},{"given":"Fan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhuhai Marine Environmental Monitoring Central Station of the State Oceanic Administration, Zhuhai 519000, China"}]},{"given":"Chunlei","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zhuhai Marine Environmental Monitoring Central Station of the State Oceanic Administration, Zhuhai 519000, China"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Climate Change and Natural Disaster Studies, Key Laboratory of Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean System, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 519082, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1038\/175681a0","article-title":"Doppler Spectrum of Sea Echo at 13.56 Mc.\/s","volume":"175","author":"Crombie","year":"1955","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1126\/science.198.4313.138","article-title":"Ocean Surface Currents Mapped by Radar","volume":"198","author":"Barrick","year":"1977","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.1983.1145578","article-title":"Least-Squares Methods for the Extraction of Surface Currents from CODAR Crossed-Loop Data: Application at ARSLOE","volume":"8","author":"Lipa","year":"1983","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-121211-172315","article-title":"High-Frequency Radar Observations of Ocean Surface Currents","volume":"5","author":"Paduan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1016\/0011-7471(74)90066-7","article-title":"HF Radio Measurements of Surface Currents","volume":"21","author":"Stewart","year":"1974","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Oceanogr. Abstr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.1997.19","article-title":"HF Radar Instruments, Past to Present","volume":"10","author":"Teague","year":"1997","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3839(99)00027-7","article-title":"Wellen Radar (WERA): A New Ground-Wave HF Radar for Ocean Remote Sensing","volume":"37","author":"Gurgel","year":"1999","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-4343(87)90108-7","article-title":"Ocean Surface Current Radar (OSCR) Vector Measurements on the Inner Continental Shelf","volume":"7","author":"Hammond","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"43","article-title":"Mapping Surface Currents with Codar","volume":"26","author":"Barrick","year":"1985","journal-title":"Sea Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"18","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Ocean Surface Currents by HF Radar","volume":"40","author":"Hou","year":"1997","journal-title":"Acta Geophys. Sin."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1029\/JC085iC01p00485","article-title":"A New Technique for Measuring Tidal Currents by Using a Two-Site HF Doppler Radar System","volume":"85","author":"Frisch","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10908","DOI":"10.1029\/JC086iC11p10908","article-title":"A Comparison of Near-Surface CODAR and VACM Measurements in the Strait of Juan De Fuca, August 1978","volume":"86","author":"Holbrook","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20669","DOI":"10.1029\/96JC01663","article-title":"Remotely Sensed Surface Currents in Monterey Bay from Shore-Based HF Radar (Coastal Ocean Dynamics Application Radar)","volume":"101","author":"Paduan","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C04009","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JC003232","article-title":"On the Accuracy of HF Radar Measurement in the Tsushima Strait","volume":"111","author":"Yoshikawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2004)021<1259:ERCMFC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Evaluating Radial Current Measurements from CODAR High-Frequency Radars with Moored Current Meters*","volume":"21","author":"Emery","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2303","DOI":"10.1029\/JC093iC03p02303","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Shelf Sea Currents Using a High-Frequency Ocean Surface Current Radar System","volume":"93","author":"Matthews","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18737","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC00049","article-title":"On the Accuracy of HF Radar Surface Current Measurements: Intercomparisons with Ship-Based Sensors","volume":"102","author":"Chapman","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18749","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC01190","article-title":"HF Radar Comparisons with Moored Estimates of Current Speed and Direction: Expected Differences and Implications","volume":"102","author":"Graber","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.1997.22","article-title":"The Coastal Jet: Observations of Surface Currents Over the Oregon Continental Shelf From HF Radar","volume":"10","author":"Kosro","year":"1997","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1995)012<0881:MOSCSD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Mesoscale Ocean Surface Current Structure Detected by High-Frequency Radar","volume":"12","author":"Shay","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1998)015<0237:CSVDBH>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Current Structure Variations Detected by High-Frequency Radar and Vector-Measuring Current Meters","volume":"15","author":"Shay","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1109\/48.895354","article-title":"On the Accuracy of Current Measurements by Means of HF Radar","volume":"25","author":"Essen","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHO720.1","article-title":"HF Radar Performance in a Low-Energy Environment: CODAR Seasonde Experience on the West Florida Shelf","volume":"27","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-13-00107.1","article-title":"Assessment of CODAR Seasonde and WERA HF Radars in Mapping Surface Currents on the West Florida Shelf","volume":"31","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2006.10.011","article-title":"Comparison of Observed (HF Radar, ADCP) and Model Barotropic Tidal Currents in the New York Bight and Block Island Sound","volume":"72","author":"Mau","year":"2007","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2008.04.013","article-title":"Model of the Long Island Sound Outflow: Comparison with Year-Long HF Radar and Doppler Current Observations","volume":"28","author":"Mau","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2006.886195","article-title":"Calibration and Validation of Direction-Finding High-Frequency Radar Ocean Surface Current Observations","volume":"31","author":"Paduan","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, L., Lu, T., Yang, F., Liu, B., Wu, L., and Wei, J. (2022). Comparisons of Tidal Currents in the Pearl River Estuary between High-Frequency Radar Data and Model Simulations. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12136509"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1109\/48.895355","article-title":"Simulation-Based Evaluations of HF Radar Ocean Current Algorithms","volume":"25","author":"Laws","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"32","article-title":"SeaSonde Is Integral to Coastal Flow Model Development","volume":"3","author":"Kohut","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hydro Int."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Shaolin, Y., Hengyu, K., Jiechang, H., Shicai, W., Zijie, Y., Biyang, W., and Xiongbin, W. (2001, January 5\u20138). Super-Resolution Ocean Surface Current Algorithm Based on MUSIC for OSMAR2000. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE Oceans 2001. An Ocean Odyssey. Conference Proceedings (IEEE Cat. No.01CH37295), Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2016.2572818","article-title":"Surface Current Characteristics in the Taiwan Strait Observed by High-Frequency Radars","volume":"42","author":"Lai","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2017.2769179","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of Surface Current Velocities Observed by OSMAR-S High-Frequency Radar System","volume":"43","author":"Lai","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Shicai, W., Zijie, Y., Biyang, W., Zhenhua, S., Jiansheng, T., Huotao, G., Xiongbin, W., and Hengyu, K. (2001, January 5\u20138). Test of HF Ground Wave Radar OSMAR2000 at the Eastern China Sea. Proceedings of the MTS\/IEEE Oceans 2001. An Ocean Odyssey. Conference Proceedings (IEEE Cat. No.01CH37295), Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s11859-009-0608-8","article-title":"Experimental Determination of Significant Waveheight by OSMAR071: Comparison with Results from Buoy","volume":"14","author":"Wu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Wuhan Univ. J. Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, W., Wen, B., Wu, S., Bai, L., Zhou, H., and Yang, J. (2006, January 18\u201321). HF Radar Receiver Designed for Surface Current Radar System. Proceedings of the 2006 10th IET International Conference on Ionospheric Radio Systems and Techniques (IRST 2006), London, UK.","DOI":"10.1049\/cp:20060275"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, L., Yang, F., Yang, Y., Xiong, Z., and Wei, J. (2023). Designing Theoretical Shipborne ADCP Survey Trajectories for High-Frequency Radar Based on a Machine Learning Neural Network. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13127208"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1976)006<0238:EVONTO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Ekman Veering Observed near the Ocean Bottom","volume":"6","author":"Kundu","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/1023673031000151412","article-title":"Comparison of Remotely Measured and Modelled Currents in Coastal Areas of Norway and Spain","volume":"9","author":"Essen","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C10020","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JC002959","article-title":"HF Radar Observations of Surface Circulation off Bodega Bay (Northern California, USA)","volume":"110","author":"Kaplan","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C08002","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JC005025","article-title":"HF Radar Observations of Small-Scale Surface Current Variability in the Straits of Florida","volume":"114","author":"Parks","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH1985.1","article-title":"High-Frequency Radar Mapping of Surface Currents Using WERA","volume":"24","author":"Shay","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3184","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JC001407","article-title":"Local and Deep-Ocean Forcing Contributions to Anomalous Water Properties on the West Florida Shelf","volume":"108","author":"Weisberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2012.02.002","article-title":"Modeling the West Florida Coastal Ocean by Downscaling from the Deep Ocean, across the Continental Shelf and into the Estuaries","volume":"48","author":"Zheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ocean Model."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1016\/0011-7471(73)90027-2","article-title":"A Technique for the Cross Spectrum Analysis of Pairs of Complex-Valued Time Series, with Emphasis on Properties of Polarized Components and Rotational Invariants","volume":"20","author":"Mooers","year":"1973","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Oceanogr. Abstr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Wei, C., Yang, F., Lu, T., Zhu, L., and Wei, J. (2022). A Machine Learning-Based Correction Method for High-Frequency Surface Wave Radar Current Measurements. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app122412980"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/1\/198\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:39:03Z","timestamp":1760103543000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/1\/198"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,3]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16010198"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16010198","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,3]]}}}