{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:34:05Z","timestamp":1760142845748,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704672000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"S&amp;T Development Fund of CAMS","award":["2023KJ050","2021Z011","2023Z008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023KJ050","2021Z011","2023Z008"]}]},{"name":"Basic Research Fund of Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences","award":["2023KJ050","2021Z011","2023Z008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023KJ050","2021Z011","2023Z008"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>At present, there is still some uncertainty in the evaluation of the performance of the Fengyun 4A Lightning Mapping Imager (LMI), which is mainly limited by the detection performance of the reference detection system and the suitability of the evaluation method. In this paper, a one-to-one performance evaluation of the LMI was performed based on total lightning flash data from the lightning Low-Frequency Electric field Detection Array (LFEDA). It was found that there were significant systematic biases in the discharge results detected via LMI, with a median of \u22120.946 s, \u22120.0817\u00b0, and \u22120.0245\u00b0 in time bias, longitude bias, and latitude bias, respectively. The evaluation results after removing the systematic biases indicated that the relative detection efficiency for flashes of LMI was 17.6%, the mean and median time errors were both 0.647 s, and the mean and median distance errors were 6.09 km and 5.02 km, respectively. The relative detection efficiency for groups of LMI was 9.8%, the mean and median time errors were 0.674 s and 0.660 s, and the mean and median distance errors were 7.19 km and 6.54 km, respectively. The detection efficiency of LMI for both flashes and groups at nighttime was significantly higher than its detection efficiency during the daytime. The relative detection efficiency for flashes of LMI at nighttime was 26.5%, while during the daytime it was 14.4%. The relative detection efficiency for groups of LMI at nighttime was 16.2%, while during the daytime it was only 7.4%. The spatial accuracy for both flashes and groups was always better during the daytime than at nighttime.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16020244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T07:59:20Z","timestamp":1704700760000},"page":"244","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Performance Evaluation of LMI Based on Low-Frequency Three-Dimensional Total Lightning Flash Location Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Mengjin","family":"Zou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5973-8964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6173-0937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanfeng","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Jingxuan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Huiyi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"298","article-title":"Progress of Observation and Study on CMA_FEBLS Low Frequency Three-Dimensional Total Lightning Flash Detection Technology in the Last Decade","volume":"37","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Trop. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2151","DOI":"10.1029\/1998JD200060","article-title":"Changes in Measured Lightning Flash Count and Return Stroke Peak Current after the 1994 U.S. National Lightning Detection Network Upgrade: 1. Observations","volume":"104","author":"Wacker","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2009.2023450","article-title":"An Overview of Lightning Locating Systems: History, Techniques, and Data Uses, with an In-Depth Look at the U.S. NLDN","volume":"51","author":"Cummins","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3573","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL010856","article-title":"A GPS-Based Three-Dimensional Lightning Mapping System: Initial Observations in Central New Mexico","volume":"26","author":"Rison","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3134","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020217","article-title":"Continuous Broadband Digital Interferometry of Lightning Using a Generalized Cross-Correlation Algorithm","volume":"119","author":"Stock","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2006JD007787","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD007787","article-title":"Performance Assessment of the Optical Transient Detector and Lightning Imaging Sensor","volume":"112","author":"Mach","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2000)017<0441:TOTDOI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Optical Transient Detector (OTD): Instrument Characteristics and Cross-Sensor Validation","volume":"17","author":"Boccippio","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2013.01.006","article-title":"The GOES-R Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM)","volume":"125\u2013126","author":"Goodman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1637","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-16-0065.1","article-title":"Introducing the New Generation of Chinese Geostationary Weather Satellites, Fengyun-4","volume":"98","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2023, November 22). For the First Time over Europe and Africa, the Lightning Imager (LI) Provides Real-Time Data on the Location and Intensity of Lightning Flashes. Available online: https:\/\/www.eumetsat.int\/mtg-lightning-imager."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E990","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-19-0304.1","article-title":"Meteosat Third Generation (MTG): Continuation and Innovation of Observations from Geostationary Orbit","volume":"102","author":"Holmlund","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hui, W., Zhang, W., Lyu, W., and Li, P. (2020). Preliminary Observations from the China Fengyun-4A Lightning Mapping Imager and Its Optical Radiation Characteristics. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12162622"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-020-9500-4","article-title":"FY-4A LMI Observed Lightning Activity in Super Typhoon Mangkhut (2018) in Comparison with WWLLN Data","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105163","article-title":"A Verification of the Lightning Detection Data from FY-4A LMI as Compared with ADTD-2","volume":"248","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Z., Qie, X., Sun, J., Xiao, X., Zhang, Y., Cao, D., and Yang, J. (2021). Evaluation of Fengyun-4A Lightning Mapping Imager (LMI) Performance during Multiple Convective Episodes over Beijing. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13091746"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, P., Zhai, G., Pang, W., Hui, W., Zhang, W., Chen, J., and Zhang, L. (2020). Preliminary Research on a Comparison and Evaluation of FY-4A LMI and ADTD Data through a Moving Amplification Matching Algorithm. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13010011"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Chen, Y. (2019). Research and Application of Clustering Algorithm for FY-4A Lightning Mapping Imager. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1896","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-016-9093-9","article-title":"Low-Frequency E-Field Detection Array (LFEDA)\u2014Construction and Preliminary Results","volume":"60","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JD031900","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD031900","article-title":"Geostationary Lightning Mapper Clustering Algorithm Stability","volume":"125","author":"Mach","year":"2020","journal-title":"JGR Atmos."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Shi, D. (2017). Lightning Location Based on Low-Frequency Electric Fieldpulse and Relationship between Lightning Initiation Andthunderstorm Structure. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-smt:20020131","article-title":"Evaluation of the Guang Dong Lightning Location System with Transmission Line Fault Data","volume":"149","author":"Chen","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Sci. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-12-00028.1","article-title":"Performance Evaluation for a Lightning Location System Based on Observations of Artificially Triggered Lightning and Natural Lightning Flashes","volume":"29","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Zhang, D. (2019). Inter-Comparison of Space- and Groud-Dased Observation of Lightning. [Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Arizona]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1175\/2007BAMS2352.1","article-title":"TELEX The Thunderstorm Electrification and Lightning Experiment","volume":"89","author":"MacGorman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-18-0173.1","article-title":"Evaluation of the Performance Characteristics of the Lightning Imaging Sensor","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Cummins, K.L., Nag, A., Murphy, M., and Bitzer, P. (2016, January 18\u201321). Evaluation of the National Lightning Detection Network Upgrade Using the Lightning Imaging Sensor. Proceedings of the 24th International Lighting Detection Conference & 6th International Lighting Meteorology Conference, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JD032024","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD032024","article-title":"Time Evolution of Satellite-Based Optical Properties in Lightning Flashes, and Its Impact on GLM Flash Detection","volume":"125","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Rubinstein, M. (1994, January 19\u201323). On the Estimation of the Stroke Detection Efficiency by Comparison of Adjacent Lightning Location Systems. Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP), Budapest, Hungary."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-15-0032.1","article-title":"A Bayesian Approach to Assess the Performance of Lightning Detection Systems","volume":"33","author":"Bitzer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL071951","article-title":"Bayesian Techniques to Analyze and Merge Lightning Locating System Data","volume":"43","author":"Bitzer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-19-0100.1","article-title":"Mitigation of Geostationary Lightning Mapper Geolocation Errors","volume":"37","author":"Virts","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, D., Lu, F., Zhang, X., and Yang, J. (2021). Lightning Activity Observed by the FengYun-4A Lightning Mapping Imager. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13153013"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/2\/244\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:42:17Z","timestamp":1760103737000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/2\/244"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16020244"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16020244","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]}}}