{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T10:56:20Z","timestamp":1774436180812,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]],"date-time":"2024-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704758400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42341206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42341206"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["GYY-DTFZ-2022-028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GYY-DTFZ-2022-028"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["CAS-WX2023SF-040301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CAS-WX2023SF-040301"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["E3E40503X2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E3E40503X2"]}]},{"name":"Weiqiao-UCAS Special Projects on Low-Carbon Technology","award":["42341206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42341206"]}]},{"name":"Weiqiao-UCAS Special Projects on Low-Carbon Technology","award":["GYY-DTFZ-2022-028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GYY-DTFZ-2022-028"]}]},{"name":"Weiqiao-UCAS Special Projects on Low-Carbon Technology","award":["CAS-WX2023SF-040301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CAS-WX2023SF-040301"]}]},{"name":"Weiqiao-UCAS Special Projects on Low-Carbon Technology","award":["E3E40503X2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E3E40503X2"]}]},{"name":"Network Security and Informatization Special Application Demonstration Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["42341206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42341206"]}]},{"name":"Network Security and Informatization Special Application Demonstration Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["GYY-DTFZ-2022-028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GYY-DTFZ-2022-028"]}]},{"name":"Network Security and Informatization Special Application Demonstration Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["CAS-WX2023SF-040301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CAS-WX2023SF-040301"]}]},{"name":"Network Security and Informatization Special Application Demonstration Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["E3E40503X2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E3E40503X2"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42341206"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42341206"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GYY-DTFZ-2022-028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GYY-DTFZ-2022-028"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CAS-WX2023SF-040301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CAS-WX2023SF-040301"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["E3E40503X2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["E3E40503X2"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Accurately estimating building heights is crucial for various applications, including urban planning, climate studies, population estimation, and environmental assessment. However, this remains a challenging task, particularly for large areas. Satellite-based Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) has shown promise, but it often faces difficulties in distinguishing building photons from other ground objects. To address this challenge, we propose a novel method that incorporates building footprints, relative positions of building and ground photons, and a self-adaptive buffer for building photon selection. We employ the Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite 2 (ICESat-2) photon-counting LiDAR, specifically the ICESat-2\/ATL03 data, along with building footprints obtained from the New York City (NYC) Open Data platform. The proposed approach was applied to estimate the heights of 17,399 buildings in NYC, and the results showed strong consistency with the reference building heights. The root mean square error (RMSE) was 8.1 m, and for 71% of the buildings, the mean absolute error (MAE) was less than 3 m. Furthermore, we conducted an extensive evaluation of the proposed approach and thoroughly investigated the influence of terrain, region, building height, building density, and parameter selection. We also verified the effectiveness of our approach in an experimental area in Beijing and compared it with other existing methods. By leveraging ICESat-2 LiDAR data, building footprints, and advanced selection techniques, the proposed approach demonstrates the potential to accurately estimate building heights over broad areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16020263","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T05:47:21Z","timestamp":1704865641000},"page":"263","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Automated Building Height Estimation Using Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite 2 Light Detection and Ranging Data and Building Footprints"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Panli","family":"Cai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Jingxian","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Runkui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Binzhou Institute of Technology, Binzhou 256606, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6132-6149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhen","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Haiyu","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1348-4233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tongze","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5147-6891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoping","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6220-1786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yashuai","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Economics and Management, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Xianfeng","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations Environment Programme (2020). Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction: Towards a Zero-Emission, Efficient and Resilient Buildings and Construction Sector, United Nations Environment Programme."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1017\/S0020782900004253","article-title":"Paris Agreement","volume":"55","author":"Horowitz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Leg. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regsciurbeco.2016.01.004","article-title":"Will skyscrapers save the planet? Building height limits and urban greenhouse gas emissions","volume":"58","author":"Borck","year":"2016","journal-title":"Reg. Sci. Urban. Econ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jue.2009.11.006","article-title":"The greenness of cities: Carbon dioxide emissions and urban development","volume":"67","author":"Glaeser","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Urban. Econ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111859","article-title":"Continental-scale mapping and analysis of 3D building structure","volume":"245","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1080\/13467581.2020.1869016","article-title":"Development of a risk assessment model against disasters in high-rise buildings and results of a building simulation analysis","volume":"21","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Asian Arch. Build. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jum.2018.06.002","article-title":"Review of building regulations for safety against hazards in Indian hill towns","volume":"7","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Urban. Manag."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1007\/s13280-016-0809-2","article-title":"Economic growth, urbanization, globalization, and the risks of emerging infectious diseases in China: A review","volume":"46","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1007\/s12273-018-0451-y","article-title":"Effects of building height and porosity on pedestrian level wind comfort in a high-density urban built environment","volume":"11","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Build. Simul."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29094-x","article-title":"High-resolution population estimation using household survey data and building footprints","volume":"13","author":"Boo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2007.06.001","article-title":"Urban population distribution models and service accessibility estimation","volume":"32","author":"Langford","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban. Syst."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2013.06.002","article-title":"Estimating the spatial distribution of the population of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia using remotely sensed built land cover and height data","volume":"41","author":"Alahmadi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-6981(73)90140-6","article-title":"City size and the urban heat island","volume":"7","author":"Oke","year":"1973","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"87","article-title":"Assessment of land surface temperature variation due to change in elevation of area surrounding Jaipur, India","volume":"21","author":"Khandelwal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2012.05.006","article-title":"Changes in city vertical profile as an indicator of sprawl: Evidence from a Mediterranean urban region","volume":"38","author":"Salvati","year":"2013","journal-title":"Habitat. Int."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2012.721552","article-title":"Towards generating highly detailed 3D CityGML models from OpenStreetMap","volume":"27","author":"Goetz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"OpenStreetMap (2023, December 01). OpenStreetMap. Available online: https:\/\/www.openstreetmap.org\/#map=5\/38.007\/-95.844."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2017.01.001","article-title":"Generating 3D city models without elevation data","volume":"64","author":"Biljecki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.110372","article-title":"Using UAVs and robotic total stations in determining height differences when crossing obstacles","volume":"188","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.25007\/ajnu.v7n4a268","article-title":"Height Evaluation and Linear Accuracy of Digital Level, Total station, GPS and Orthophoto","volume":"7","author":"Abdulrahman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acad. J. Nawroz Univ."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"103213","article-title":"Combining ICESat-2 photons and Google Earth Satellite images for building height extraction","volume":"117","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2019.01.004","article-title":"Creating 3D city models with building footprints and LIDAR point cloud classification: A machine learning approach","volume":"75","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban. Syst."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2021.11.024","article-title":"Large-scale building height retrieval from single SAR imagery based on bounding box regression networks","volume":"184","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112128","article-title":"National-scale mapping of building height using Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 time series","volume":"252","author":"Frantz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2031910","article-title":"Building Height Retrieval From VHR SAR Imagery Based on an Iterative Simulation and Matching Technique","volume":"48","author":"Brunner","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111705","article-title":"Developing a method to estimate building height from Sentinel-1 data","volume":"240","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112590","article-title":"A deep learning method for building height estimation using high-resolution multi-view imagery over urban areas: A case study of 42 Chinese cities","volume":"264","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-022-01192-x","article-title":"A building height dataset across China in 2017 estimated by the spatially-informed approach","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2022.01.022","article-title":"Estimating building height in China from ALOS AW3D30","volume":"185","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Misra, P., Avtar, R., and Takeuchi, W. (2018). Comparison of Digital Building Height Models Extracted from AW3D, TanDEM-X, ASTER, and SRTM Digital Surface Models over Yangon City. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10122008"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2018.09.004","article-title":"Large-scale parameterization of 3D building morphology in complex urban landscapes using aerial LiDAR and city administrative data","volume":"73","author":"Bonczak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8823","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2010.547531","article-title":"Trend analysis of building height and total floor space in Beijing, China using ICESat\/GLAS data","volume":"32","author":"Cheng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1914","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2019.2911967","article-title":"Extraction of Multiple Building Heights Using ICESat\/GLAS Full-Waveform Data Assisted by Optical Imagery","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seidleck, M. (2018, January 3\u201310). The ice, cloud, and land elevation satellite-2\u2014Overview, science, and applications. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, MT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/AERO.2018.8396364"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"102596","article-title":"Retrieving building height in urban areas using ICESat-2 photon-counting LiDAR data","volume":"104","author":"Lao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, L., Li, L., and Chen, H. (2021, January 11\u201316). Evaluation of the Significant Wave Height from HY2B\/ALT Using Cryosat2\/SIRAL and ICESAT2\/ATLAS Data Sets in the Arctic. Proceedings of the  International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Brussels, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS47720.2021.9553793"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2022.113392","article-title":"Mapping fine-scale building heights in urban agglomeration with spaceborne lidar","volume":"285","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112571","article-title":"Performance evaluation of GEDI and ICESat-2 laser altimeter data for terrain and canopy height retrievals","volume":"264","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2020.2977935","article-title":"Design and Data Processing of China\u2019s First Spaceborne Laser Altimeter System for Earth Observation: GaoFen-7","volume":"13","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011003","DOI":"10.1088\/2634-4505\/abf820","article-title":"Retrieval of building heights from ICESat-2 photon data and evaluation with field measurements","volume":"1","author":"Dandabathula","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Inf. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goud, G.P.S., and Bhardwaj, A. (2021). Estimation of Building Heights and DEM Accuracy Assessment Using ICESat-2 Data Products. Eng. Proc., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ecsa-8-11442"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau (2023, December 01). Measuring America\u2019s People, Places, and Economy, Available online: https:\/\/www.census.gov\/quickfacts\/fact\/table\/newyorkcitynewyork,bostoncitymassachusetts,US\/LND110210."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Statista Research Department (2023, December 01). Real Gross Domestic Product of New York in the United States from 2000 to 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.statista.com\/statistics\/188087\/gdp-of-the-us-federal-state-of-new-york-since-1997\/#statisticContainer."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111325","article-title":"The Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite\u20142 mission: A global geolocated photon product derived from the Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System","volume":"233","author":"Neumann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024016","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ac4d4f","article-title":"A 30 m global map of elevation with forests and buildings removed","volume":"17","author":"Hawker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karra, K., Kontgis, C., Statman-Weil, Z., Mazzariello, J.C., Mathis, M., and Brumby, S.P. (2021, January 11\u201316). Global land use\/land cover with Sentinel 2 and deep learning. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS, Brussels, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS47720.2021.9553499"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Neumann, T.A., Brenner, A., Hancock, D., Robbins, J., Saba, J., Harbeck, K., Gibbons, A., Lee, J., Luthcke, S.B., and Rebold, T. (2021). ATLAS\/ICESat-2 L2A Global Geolocated Photon Data, Version 5, NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, B., Huang, H., and Zhao, Y. (2023). Utilizing Building Offset and Shadow to Retrieve Urban Building Heights with ICESat-2 Photons. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15153786"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/2\/263\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:43:20Z","timestamp":1760103800000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/2\/263"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16020263"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16020263","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]}}}