{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,18]],"date-time":"2026-07-18T17:34:18Z","timestamp":1784396058895,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,16]],"date-time":"2024-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705363200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ESA SnowSAR Campaign Data Analysis Study (SCADAS)","award":["4000118400\/16\/NL\/FF\/gp"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4000118400\/16\/NL\/FF\/gp"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this work, backscattering signatures of snow-covered lake ice and sea ice from X- and Ku-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data are investigated. The SAR data were acquired with the ESA airborne SnowSAR sensor in winter 2012 over Lake Oraj\u00e4rvi in northern Finland and over landfast ice in the Bay of Bothnia of the Baltic Sea. Co-incident with the SnowSAR acquisitions, in situ snow and ice data were measured. In addition, time series of TerraSAR-X images and ice mass balance buoy data were acquired for Lake Oraj\u00e4rvi in 2011\u20132012. The main objective of our study was to investigate relationships between SAR backscattering signatures and snow depth over lake and sea ice, with the ultimate objective of assessing the feasibility of retrieval of snow characteristics using X- and Ku-band dual-polarization (VV and VH) SAR over freshwater or sea ice. This study constitutes the first comprehensive survey of snow backscattering signatures at these two combined frequencies over both lake and sea ice. For lake ice, we show that X-band VH-polarized backscattering coefficient (\u03c3o) and the Ku-band VV\/VH-ratio exhibited the highest sensitivity to the snow depth. For sea ice, the highest sensitivity to the snow depth was found from the Ku-band VV-polarized \u03c3o and the Ku-band VV\/VH-ratio. However, the observed relations were relatively weak, indicating that at least for the prevailing snow conditions, obtaining reliable estimates of snow depth over lake and sea ice would be challenging using only X- and Ku-band backscattering information.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16020369","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]],"date-time":"2024-01-17T04:16:56Z","timestamp":1705465016000},"page":"369","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["X- and Ku-Band SAR Backscattering Signatures of Snow-Covered Lake Ice and Sea Ice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1316-5109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katriina","family":"Veijola","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juval","family":"Cohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1250-6300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marko","family":"M\u00e4kynen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juha","family":"Lemmetyinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7466-3569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jaan","family":"Praks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15500, FI-00076 Espoo, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8156-8412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bin","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3646","DOI":"10.1029\/JC083iC07p03646","article-title":"Energy Exchange over Young Sea Ice in the Central Arctic","volume":"83","author":"Maykut","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.2166\/nh.1983.0006","article-title":"A Growth Model for Black Ice, Snow Ice and Snow Thickness in Subarctic Basins","volume":"14","year":"1983","journal-title":"Hydrol. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s003820050280","article-title":"Modelling the Influence of Snow Accumulation and Snow-Ice Formation on the Seasonal Cycle of the Antarctic Sea-Ice Cover","volume":"15","author":"Fichefet","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.02.037","article-title":"Combined Airborne Laser and Radar Altimeter Measurements over the Fram Strait in May 2002","volume":"111","author":"Giles","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3764","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2020.3022945","article-title":"Assessment of Arctic Sea Ice Thickness Estimates From ICESat-2 Using IceBird Airborne Measurements","volume":"59","author":"Shen","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L20505:1","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL049216","article-title":"Large-Scale Surveys of Snow Depth on Arctic Sea Ice from Operation IceBridge","volume":"38","author":"Kurtz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2892","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrc.20228","article-title":"Arctic-Scale Assessment of Satellite Passive Microwave-Derived Snow Depth on Sea Ice Using Operation IceBridge Airborne Data","volume":"118","author":"Brucker","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2616134","article-title":"Ultrawideband FMCW Radar for Airborne Measurements of Snow Over Sea Ice and Land","volume":"55","author":"Yan","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7761","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2020.2982813","article-title":"An Improved UWB Microwave Radar for Very Long-Range Measurements of Snow Cover","volume":"69","author":"Leuschen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2019.2893043","article-title":"Drone-Mounted Ultrawideband Radar for Retrieval of Snowpack Properties","volume":"69","author":"Jenssen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112616","article-title":"50 Years of Lake Ice Research from Active Microwave Remote Sensing: Progress and Prospects","volume":"264","author":"Murfitt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Jeffries, M.O. (2013). Antarctic Research Series, American Geophysical Union."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"29","article-title":"The Physical Basis for Sea Ice Remote Sensing","volume":"Volume 68","author":"Carsey","year":"1992","journal-title":"Geophysical Monograph Series"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-11-47-2017","article-title":"Satellite Microwave Assessment of Northern Hemisphere Lake Ice Phenology from 2002 to 2015","volume":"11","author":"Du","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2009.2038947","article-title":"Cold Regions Hydrology High-Resolution Observatory for Snow and Cold Land Processes","volume":"98","author":"Rott","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Trampuz, C., Coccia, A., and Imbembo, E. (2024, January 08). Technical Assistance for the Development and Deployment of an X- and Ku- Band MiniSAR Airborne System; Metasensing, Final Report, Contract 4000101697\/10\/NL\/FF\/ef. Available online: https:\/\/earth.esa.int\/eogateway\/documents\/20142\/37627\/SnowSAR-FinalReport_DataSet_Desc.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Palosuo, E., Lepp\u00e4ranta, M., and Sein\u00e4, A. (1982). Formation, Thickness and Stability of Fast Ice along the Finnish Coast, Winter Navig. Res. Board. Available online: https:\/\/www.traficom.fi\/sites\/default\/files\/12795-Report_No_36_FORMATION%2C_THICKNESS_AND_STABILITY_OF_FAST_ICE_ALONG_THE_FINNISH_COAST.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"361","article-title":"Microwave Remote Sensing of Low-Salinity Sea Ice","volume":"Volume 68","author":"Carsey","year":"1992","journal-title":"Geophysical Monograph Series"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21564","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusa.v66.21564","article-title":"Evolution of Snow and Ice Temperature, Thickness and Energy Balance in Lake Oraj\u00e4rvi, Northern Finland","volume":"66","author":"Cheng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tellus Dyn. Meteorol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Di Leo, D., Coccia, A., and Meta, A. (2024, January 08). Technical Assistance for the Development and Deployment of an X- and Ku-Band MiniSAR Airborne System (SnowSAR). Analysis and Comments on SnowSAR Datasets, Final Report, Contract 4000101697\/10\/NL\/FF\/ef. Available online: https:\/\/earth.esa.int\/eogateway\/documents\/20142\/37627\/SnowSAR-Final-Report-MS-EST-SNW-03-TCN-258.pdf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwerdt, M., Schmidt, K., Klenk, P., Tous Ramon, N., Rudolf, D., Raab, S., Weidenhaupt, K., Reimann, J., and Zink, M. (2018). Radiometric Performance of the TerraSAR-X Mission over More Than Ten Years of Operation. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10050754"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Lemmetyinen, J., Kontu, A., Pulliainen, J., and M\u00e4kynen, M. (2013). Synergy of CoReH2O SAR and Microwave Radiometry Data to Retrieve Snow and Ice Parameters\u2014Task 1 Report, European Space Agency. ESA Study, Contract 22829\/09\/NL\/JC."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Ulaby, F.T., Moore, R.K., and Fung, A.K. (1982). Microwave Remote Sensing. 2: Radar Remote Sensing and Surface Scattering and Emission Theory, Addison-Wesley. Remote Sensing."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Fung, A.K. (1994). Microwave Scattering and Emission Models and Their Applications, Artech House. The Artech House Remote Sensing Library."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makynen, M., Cheng, B., Simila, M., Vihma, T., and Hallikainen, M. (2007, January 23\u201328). Interpretation of C-Band SAR Backscattering Coefficient Time Series for the Baltic Sea Landfast Sea Ice Using a 1-D Thermodynamic Snow\/Ice Model. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2007.4423721"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paterson, W.S.B. (1994). The Physics of Glaciers, Pergamon. [3rd].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-037944-9.50012-1"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Kontu, A. (2018). Effect of Snow Microstructure and Subnivean Water Bodies on Microwave Radiometry of Seasonal Snow. [Doctoral Thesis, Aalto University]."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.1984.1145649","article-title":"Effect of a Snow Cover on Microwave Backscatter from Sea Ice","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"1984","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.12.007","article-title":"Variability in Ice Phenology on Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada, from SeaWinds\/QuikSCAT: 2000\u20132006","volume":"113","author":"Howell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shokr, M., and Sinha, N. (2015). Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119028000"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tedesco, M. (2014). Remote Sensing of the Cryosphere, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118368909"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3794","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2014.2323199","article-title":"Snow Height Determination by Polarimetric Phase Differences in X-Band SAR Data","volume":"7","author":"Leinss","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.07.027","article-title":"Monitoring Ice Variations in Qinghai Lake from 1979 to 2016 Using Passive Microwave Remote Sensing Data","volume":"607\u2013608","author":"Cai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.808317","article-title":"Sea Ice Concentration, Ice Temperature, and Snow Depth Using AMSR-E Data","volume":"41","author":"Comiso","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-7-1971-2013","article-title":"Snow Thickness Retrieval over Thick Arctic Sea Ice Using SMOS Satellite Data","volume":"7","author":"Kaleschke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3081","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.883134","article-title":"Microwave Signatures of Snow on Sea Ice: Observations","volume":"44","author":"Markus","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.3189\/172756411795931750","article-title":"An Intercomparison between AMSR-E Snow-Depth and Satellite C- and Ku-Band Radar Backscatter Data for Antarctic Sea Ice","volume":"52","author":"Kern","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10479","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL075494","article-title":"Critical Role of Snow on Sea Ice Growth in the Atlantic Sector of the Arctic Ocean","volume":"44","author":"Merkouriadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C09020","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JC004654","article-title":"Model Experiments on Snow and Ice Thermodynamics in the Arctic Ocean with CHINARE 2003 Data","volume":"113","author":"Cheng","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kern, S., and Ozsoy-\u00c7i\u00e7ek, B. (2016). Satellite Remote Sensing of Snow Depth on Antarctic Sea Ice: An Inter-Comparison of Two Empirical Approaches. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8060450"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3551","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-12-3551-2018","article-title":"Estimating Snow Depth over Arctic Sea Ice from Calibrated Dual-Frequency Radar Freeboards","volume":"12","author":"Lawrence","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JC016008","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC016008","article-title":"Arctic Snow Depth and Sea Ice Thickness from ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2 Freeboards: A First Examination","volume":"125","author":"Kwok","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-14-2235-2020","article-title":"The Copernicus Polar Ice and Snow Topography Altimeter (CRISTAL) High-Priority Candidate Mission","volume":"14","author":"Kern","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31590","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusa.v68.31590","article-title":"The Impact of Meteorological Conditions on Snow and Ice Thickness in an Arctic Lake","volume":"68","author":"Wei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Tellus Dyn. Meteorol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2022.3197109","article-title":"Investigating the Effect of Lake Ice Properties on Multifrequency Backscatter Using the Snow Microwave Radiative Transfer Model","volume":"60","author":"Murfitt","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3708","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2677583","article-title":"Retrievals of Lake Ice Thickness From Great Slave Lake and Great Bear Lake Using CryoSat-2","volume":"55","author":"Beckers","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5956","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2718533","article-title":"Improvement of Lake Ice Thickness Retrieval From MODIS Satellite Data Using a Thermodynamic Model","volume":"55","author":"Duguay","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-15-345-2021","article-title":"Inter-Comparison of Snow Depth over Arctic Sea Ice from Reanalysis Reconstructions and Satellite Retrieval","volume":"15","author":"Zhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.890418","article-title":"Observations of Snow Water Equivalent Change on Landfast First-Year Sea Ice in Winter Using Synthetic Aperture Radar Data","volume":"45","author":"Yackel","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.3189\/2015AoG69A715","article-title":"The Impact of Early-Summer Snow Properties on Antarctic Landfast Sea-Ice X-Band Backscatter","volume":"56","author":"Paul","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.06.005","article-title":"Sensitivity of C-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar Polarimetric Parameters to Snow Thickness over Landfast Smooth First-Year Sea Ice","volume":"166","author":"Gill","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2118","DOI":"10.1109\/36.957275","article-title":"Global Snow Cover Monitoring with Spaceborne K\/Sub u\/-Band Scatterometer","volume":"39","author":"Nghiem","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S56","DOI":"10.5589\/m10-020","article-title":"Evaluation of New Spaceborne SAR Sensors for Sea-Ice Monitoring in the Baltic Sea","volume":"36","author":"Eriksson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.10.004","article-title":"Ku-, X- and C-Band Measured and Modeled Microwave Backscatter from a Highly Saline Snow Cover on First-Year Sea Ice","volume":"187","author":"Nandan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1109\/36.718643","article-title":"The Role of Snow on Microwave Emission and Scattering over First-Year Sea Ice","volume":"36","author":"Barber","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111910","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111910","article-title":"Observations of SAR Polarimetric Parameters of Lake and Fast Sea Ice during the Early Growth Phase","volume":"247","author":"Shokr","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-17-1697-2023","article-title":"Bedfast and Floating-Ice Dynamics of Thermokarst Lakes Using a Temporal Deep-Learning Mapping Approach: Case Study of the Old Crow Flats, Yukon, Canada","volume":"17","author":"Shaposhnikova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2887","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2786158","article-title":"Observing Scattering Mechanisms of Bubbled Freshwater Lake Ice Using Polarimetric RADARSAT-2 (C-Band) and UW-Scat (X- and Ku-Bands)","volume":"56","author":"Gunn","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3629","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2420411","article-title":"Observation and Modeling of X- and Ku-Band Backscatter of Snow-Covered Freshwater Lake Ice","volume":"8","author":"Gunn","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2015.09.012","article-title":"Freshwater Lake Ice Thickness Derived Using Surface-Based X- and Ku-Band FMCW Scatterometers","volume":"120","author":"Gunn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.3394\/0380-1330(2007)33[722:SSRSOG]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Satellite SAR Remote Sensing of Great Lakes Ice Cover, Part 1. Ice Backscatter Signatures at C Band","volume":"33","author":"Nghiem","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Great Lakes Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S391","DOI":"10.5589\/m11-001","article-title":"Monitoring Lake Ice during Spring Melt Using RADARSAT-2 SAR","volume":"36","author":"Geldsetzer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3189\/2013AoG62A037","article-title":"Observing Lake- and River-Ice Decay with SAR: Advantages and Limitations of the Unsupervised k-Means Classification Approach","volume":"54","author":"Sobiech","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.02.022","article-title":"Analyzing Floating and Bedfast Lake Ice Regimes across Arctic Alaska Using 25 Years of Space-Borne SAR Imagery","volume":"209","author":"Engram","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2022.113176","article-title":"Polarimetric Decomposition of Microwave-Band Freshwater Ice SAR Data: Review, Analysis, and Future Directions","volume":"280","author":"Ferguson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.05.028","article-title":"The Influence of Snow Microstructure on Dual-Frequency Radar Measurements in a Tundra Environment","volume":"215","author":"King","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jglr.2013.05.003","article-title":"Great Lakes Ice Classification Using Satellite C-Band SAR Multi-Polarization Data","volume":"39","author":"Leshkevich","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Great Lakes Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3915","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-14-3915-2022","article-title":"Airborne SnowSAR Data at X and Ku Bands over Boreal Forest, Alpine and Tundra Snow Cover","volume":"14","author":"Lemmetyinen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/2\/369\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:48:22Z","timestamp":1760104102000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/2\/369"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,16]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16020369"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16020369","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,16]]}}}