{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T07:39:23Z","timestamp":1773041963242,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]],"date-time":"2024-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1706054400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration\u2019s Future Investigators in NASA Earth and Space Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC19K1373"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC19K1373"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration\u2019s Future Investigators in NASA Earth and Space Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1612966"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1612966"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration\u2019s Future Investigators in NASA Earth and Space Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNH17ZDA001N-MEASURES"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNH17ZDA001N-MEASURES"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration\u2019s Future Investigators in NASA Earth and Space Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC19K1117"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC19K1117"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology","award":["80NSSC19K1373"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC19K1373"]}]},{"name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology","award":["1612966"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1612966"]}]},{"name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology","award":["NNH17ZDA001N-MEASURES"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNH17ZDA001N-MEASURES"]}]},{"name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology","award":["80NSSC19K1117"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC19K1117"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA MEASUREs program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC19K1373"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC19K1373"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA MEASUREs program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1612966"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1612966"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA MEASUREs program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNH17ZDA001N-MEASURES"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNH17ZDA001N-MEASURES"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA MEASUREs program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC19K1117"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC19K1117"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC19K1373"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC19K1373"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1612966"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1612966"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNH17ZDA001N-MEASURES"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNH17ZDA001N-MEASURES"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NSSC19K1117"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC19K1117"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We examine the co-variability between the surface wind divergence and vorticity and how it varies with latitude in the Pacific Ocean using surface vector winds from reanalysis and satellite scatterometer observations. We show a strong correlation between divergence and vorticity throughout the extratropical oceans. From this observation, we develop a dynamical model to explain the first-order dynamics which govern this strong co-variability. Our model exploits the fact that for much of the time, the large-scale surface winds are approximately in a steady-state Ekman balance to first order. An angle \u03b1\u2032 is derived from Ekman dynamics by utilizing only the surface divergence and vorticity and is shown to succinctly summarize the co-variability between divergence and vorticity. This approach yields insight into the dynamics that shape the spatial variations in the large-scale surface wind field over the ocean; previous research has focused mainly on explaining variability in the vector winds rather than the derivative wind fields. Our model predicts two steady-state conditions which are easily identifiable as discrete peaks in \u03b1\u2032 Probability Distribution Functions (PDFs). In the Northern Hemisphere, steady-state conditions can be either (1) diverging, with negative vorticity, or (2) converging, with positive vorticity. We show that these two states correspond to relative high and low sea-level pressure features, respectively. Southern Hemisphere conditions are similar to those of the Northern Hemisphere, except with the opposite sign of vorticity. This model also predicts the latitudinal variations in the co-variability between divergence and vorticity due to the latitudinal variation in the Coriolis parameter. The main conclusion of this study is that the statistical co-variability between the surface divergence and vorticity over the ocean is consistent with Ekman dynamics and provides perhaps the first dynamical approach for interpreting their statistical distributions. The related \u03b1\u2032 PDFs provide a unique method for analyzing air\u2013sea interactions and will likely have applications in evaluating the surface wind fields from scatterometers and weather and reanalysis models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16030451","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]],"date-time":"2024-01-24T07:42:16Z","timestamp":1706082136000},"page":"451","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Co-Variability between the Surface Wind Divergence and Vorticity over the Ocean"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Robert","family":"Jacobs","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8884-6817","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Larry W.","family":"O\u2019Neill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00443","article-title":"Remotely Sensed Winds and Wind Stresses for Marine Forecasting and Ocean Modeling","volume":"6","author":"Bourassa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1091901","article-title":"Satellite Measurements Reveal Persistent Small-Scale Features in Ocean Winds","volume":"303","author":"Chelton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7596","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-15-0119.1","article-title":"Estimation of Time-Averaged Surface Divergence and Vorticity from Satellite Ocean Vector Winds","volume":"28","author":"Haack","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2004)021<1216:WSCAWS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Wind Stress Curl and Wind Stress Divergence Biases from Rain Effects on QSCAT Surface Wind Retrievals","volume":"21","author":"Milliff","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JTECHO689.1","article-title":"Uncertainty in Scatterometer-Derived Vorticity","volume":"27","author":"Bourassa","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4182","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JCLI2392.1","article-title":"On the Relationship between SST Gradients, Boundary Layer Winds, and Convergence over the Tropical Oceans","volume":"22","author":"Back","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6477","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JCLI2393.1","article-title":"A Simple Model of Climatological Rainfall and Vertical Motion Patterns over the Tropical Oceans","volume":"22","author":"Back","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"King, G.P., Portabella, M., Lin, W., and Stoffelen, A. (2022). Correlating Extremes in Wind Divergence with Extremes in Rain over the Tropical Atlantic. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14051147"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2332","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2623861","article-title":"ASCAT Ultrahigh-Resolution Wind Products on Optimized Grids","volume":"10","author":"Vogelzang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vogelzang, J., and Stoffelen, A. (2022). On the Accuracy and Consistency of Quintuple Collocation Analysis of in Situ, Scatterometer, and NWP Winds. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14184552"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4387","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2963690","article-title":"Validation of New Sea Surface Wind Products from Scatterometers Onboard the HY-2B and Metop-C Satellites","volume":"58","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-11-00054.1","article-title":"Challenges to Satellite Sensors of Ocean Winds: Addressing Precipitation Effects","volume":"29","author":"Weissman","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2023.3336471","article-title":"A Conceptual Rain Effect Model for Ku-Band Scatterometers","volume":"61","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-17-0255.1","article-title":"Why Do Modeled and Observed Surface Wind Stress Climatologies Differ in the Trade Wind Regions?","volume":"31","author":"Simpson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.5194\/os-15-831-2019","article-title":"Characterizing Era-Interim and ERA5 Surface Wind Biases Using ASCAT","volume":"15","author":"Stoffelen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1029\/97GL00033","article-title":"Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Atmospheric Convergence Zones in the Tropical Pacific Observed with ERS-1 Scatterometer","volume":"24","author":"Zheng","year":"1997","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"D15","article-title":"Climatology of the ITCZ Derived from ERA Interim Reanalyses","volume":"116","author":"Skok","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2003)016<0723:TICZIT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Intertropical Convergence Zone in the South Atlantic and the Equatorial Cold Tongue","volume":"16","author":"Grodsky","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GL015431","article-title":"Double Intertropical Convergence Zones-a New Look Using Scatterometer","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"D11","article-title":"Characteristics of the Double Intertropical Convergence Zone over the Tropical Indian Ocean","volume":"112","author":"Meenu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28107","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD000056","article-title":"Satellite Observations of the Southeast Pacific Intertropical Convergence Zone during 1993\u20131998","volume":"106","author":"Halpern","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.04.016","article-title":"Characteristics of Atmospheric Divergence and Convergence in the Indian Ocean Inferred from Scatterometer Winds","volume":"97","author":"Luis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2001)058<0109:TGDOTT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Global Distribution of the Time-Average Wind Stress Curl from NSCAT","volume":"58","author":"Milliff","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JCLI2613.1","article-title":"The Effects of SST-Induced Surface Wind Speed and Direction Gradients on Midlatitude Surface Vorticity and Divergence","volume":"23","author":"Chelton","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-16-0213.1","article-title":"The Gulf Stream Convergence Zone in the Time-Mean Winds","volume":"74","author":"Haack","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-13-00218.1","article-title":"The Effects of Gap-Wind-Induced Vorticity, the Monsoon Trough, and the ITCZ on East Pacific Tropical Cyclogenesis","volume":"142","author":"Holbach","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mon. Weather. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JC009993","article-title":"Upscale and Downscale Energy Transfer over the Tropical Pacific Revealed by Scatterometer Winds","volume":"120","author":"King","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9083","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-19-0948.1","article-title":"Processes Shaping the Frontal-Scale Time-Mean Surface Wind Convergence Patterns around the Gulf Stream and Agulhas Return Current in Winter","volume":"33","author":"Masunaga","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2165","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2643641","article-title":"Evaluating and Extending the Ocean Wind Climate Data Record","volume":"10","author":"Wentz","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Holton, J.R. (2009). An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, Elsevier Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7332","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014187","article-title":"Coastal Upwelling Revisited: Ekman, Bakun, and Improved Upwelling Indices for the U.S. West Coast","volume":"123","author":"Jacox","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23995","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD000027","article-title":"Spectral Analysis of QuikSCAT Surface Winds and Two-Dimensional Turbulence","volume":"106","author":"Patoux","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49711247209","article-title":"An Observational Study of the Structure of Stratiform Cloud Sheets: Part I. Structure","volume":"112","author":"Nicholls","year":"1986","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2373","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-11-00121.1","article-title":"Stratocumulus Clouds","volume":"140","author":"Wood","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lounesto, P. (2001). Clifford Algebras and Spinors, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511526022"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2001)014<1479:OOCBSW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Observations of Coupling between Surface Wind Stress and Sea Surface Temperature in the Eastern Tropical Pacific","volume":"14","author":"Chelton","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3379","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2002)015<3379:DOOABL>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Direct Observations of Atmospheric Boundary Layer Response to SST Variations Associated with Tropical Instability Waves over the Eastern Equatorial Pacific","volume":"15","author":"Hashizume","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6671","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JC011774","article-title":"Air-Sea Interaction at the Southern Brazilian Continental Shelf: In Situ Observations","volume":"121","author":"Pezzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-005-9035-3","article-title":"Determination of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Height from Radiosonde and Lidar Backscatter","volume":"120","author":"Hennemuth","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"SeaPAC (2021, August 20). QuikSCAT Level 2B Ocean Wind Vectors in 12.5km Slice Composites Version 4.1. Ver. 4.1. PO.DAAC, CA, USA, Available online: https:\/\/podaac.jpl.nasa.gov\/dataset\/QSCAT_LEVEL_2B_OWV_COMP_12_KUSST_LCRES_4.1."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"EUMETSAT\/OSI SAF (2022, January 22). MetOp-A ASCAT Level 2 25.0 km Ocean Surface Wind Vectors. Ver. Operational\/Near-Real-Time. PO.DAAC, CA, USA, Available online: https:\/\/podaac.jpl.nasa.gov\/dataset\/ASCATA-L2-25km."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2019, March 03). Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) (2017): ERA5: Fifth Generation of ECMWF Atmospheric Reanalyses of the Global Climate. Available online: https:\/\/cds.climate.copernicus.eu\/cdsapp#!\/home."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 Global Reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1988.10478639","article-title":"Locally Weighted Regression: An Approach to Regression Analysis by Local Fitting","volume":"83","author":"Cleveland","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1992.10476262","article-title":"Frequency Domain Diagnostics for Linear Smoothers","volume":"87","author":"Schlax","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2685242","article-title":"Improved Use of Scatterometer Measurements by Using Stress-Equivalent Reference Winds","volume":"10","author":"Stoffelen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Liu, W.T., and Tang, W. (1996). Equivalent Neutral Wind (NASA Technical Report), Jet Propulsion Lab., California Inst. Of Tech.. No. NASA-CR-203424."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2687(08)60404-5","article-title":"Chapter 4 Oceanic Surface Winds","volume":"27","author":"Ross","year":"1985","journal-title":"Adv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9909","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL080135","article-title":"A New Framework for Near-Surface Wind Convergence over the Kuroshio Extension and Gulf Stream in Wintertime: The Role of Atmospheric Fronts","volume":"45","author":"Parfitt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dynatmoce.2008.01.001","article-title":"Air\u2013Sea Interaction over Ocean Fronts and Eddies","volume":"45","author":"Small","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dyn. Atmos. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1981","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-21-0982.1","article-title":"Ocean Mesoscale and Frontal-Scale Ocean\u2013Atmosphere Interactions and Influence on Large-Scale Climate: A Review","volume":"36","author":"Seo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5527","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-22-0441.1","article-title":"Near-Surface Wind Convergence over the Gulf Stream\u2014The Role of SST Revisited","volume":"36","author":"Small","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06690","article-title":"Influence of the Gulf Stream on the Troposphere","volume":"452","author":"Minobe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/3\/451\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:48:34Z","timestamp":1760104114000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/3\/451"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16030451"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16030451","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]]}}}