{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T16:56:05Z","timestamp":1780332965018,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]],"date-time":"2024-02-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707177600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000844","name":"European Space Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["4000108996\/13\/NL\/US"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4000108996\/13\/NL\/US"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000844","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000844","name":"European Space Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["4000116646\/16\/NL\/US"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4000116646\/16\/NL\/US"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000844","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents an innovative integrated sensor that combines GNSS and a low-cost accelerometer for bridge health monitoring. GNSS and accelerometers are both significant and effective sensors for structural monitoring, but they each have limitations. The sampling rate of GNSS data is relatively low, making it challenging to capture high-frequency vibrations, while accelerometers struggle with low-frequency signals and are susceptible to environmental changes. Additionally, GNSS receivers and accelerometers are often installed separately, leading to challenges in data fusion processing due to differing temporal and geospatial references. The proposed integrated sensor addresses these issues by synchronizing GNSS and an accelerometer\u2019s time and geospatial coordinate reference. This allows for a more accurate and reliable deformation and vibration measurement for bridge monitoring. The performance of the new sensor was assessed using a high-quality\/cost Leica GM30 GNSS receiver and a Sherborne A545 accelerometer. Experiments conducted on the Wilford suspension bridge demonstrate the effectiveness of this innovative integrated sensor in measuring deformation and vibration for bridge health monitoring. The limitation of the low-cost MEMS (Micro Electromechanical System) accelerometer for the weak motion frequency detection is also pointed out.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16040607","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]],"date-time":"2024-02-06T05:36:43Z","timestamp":1707197803000},"page":"607","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["An Innovative Sensor Integrated with GNSS and Accelerometer for Bridge Health Monitoring"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Yilin","family":"Xie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangsu Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing 210017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Song","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"No. 1 Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources of Shandong Province, Jinan 250109, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Cableway Intelligent Deformation Monitoring of Shandong Provincial Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Jinan 250109, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2440-8054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaolin","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Architecture, Civil and Transportation Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dinh Tung","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RWDI UK Ltd., Milton Keynes MK11 3EA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UbiPOS UK Ltd., Nottingham NG7 1QE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haiyang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangsu Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing 210017, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Meng, X., Roberts, G., Dodson, A., and Brown, C. (2006, January 16\u201319). GNSS for bridge deformation: Limitations and solutions. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Bridge Maintenance, Safety and Management, Porto, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Yu, D., Yang, Q., and University, C.A. (2013). The identification of structural loading response for long-span bridge by using GNSS time series. Technol. Econ. Areas Commun., 15."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.28991\/cej-2016-00000032","article-title":"Evaluation of building displacement induced by epb tunneling through GPS-GNSS monitoring system and back analysis technique (tabriz subway twin tunnels)","volume":"2","author":"Davarpanah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Civ. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Barzaghi, R., Cazzaniga, N., Pinto, L., and Tornatore, V. (April, January 30). GNSS methods in dam monitoring: Case studies and future perspectives. Proceedings of the 3rd Joint International Symposium on Deformation Monitoring (JISDM), Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, N., Chen, L., Liu, J.B., Wang, L., Tao, T.Y., Wu, D.W., and Chen, R.Z. (2019). A review of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-based dynamic monitoring technologies for structural health monitoring. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11091001"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04015003","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000146","article-title":"Dynamic deflections of a stiff footbridge using 100-Hz GNSS and accelerometer data","volume":"141","author":"Moschas","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2830","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2830","article-title":"Monitoring the response of Severn Suspension Bridge in the United Kingdom using multi-GNSS measurements","volume":"28","author":"Msaewe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Struct. Control. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2017.06.026","article-title":"Structural evaluation of dynamic and semi-static displacements of the Juarez Bridge using GPS technology","volume":"110","author":"Bennett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04018008","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000263","article-title":"Reliable dynamic monitoring of bridges with integrated GPS and BeiDou","volume":"144","author":"Xi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125102","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/aba884","article-title":"Combining GNSS and accelerometer measurements for evaluation of dynamic and semi-static characteristics of bridge structures","volume":"31","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1625","article-title":"Progress and Thoughts on Application of Satellite Positioning Technology in Deformation Monitoring of Water Conservancy Projects","volume":"47","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Mita, A., and Yokoi, I. (2000, January 4\u20138). Fiber Bragg grating accelerometer for structural health monitoring. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Motion and Vibration Control (MOVIC 2000), Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"102680","article-title":"Stayed-cable bridge damage detection and localization based on accelerometer health monitoring measurements","volume":"2015","author":"Kaloop","year":"2015","journal-title":"Shock Vib."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, L., Fu, Y., Chow, R., Spencer, B.F., Park, J.W., and Mechitov, K. (2018). Development of a high-sensitivity wireless accelerometer for structural health monitoring. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010262"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bedon, C., Bergamo, E., Izzi, M., and No\u00e8, S. (2018). Prototyping and validation of MEMS accelerometers for structural health monitoring\u2014The case study of the Pietratagliata cable-stayed bridge. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan7030030"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2019.02.062","article-title":"An experimental study on the data-driven structural health monitoring of large wind turbine blades using a single accelerometer and actuator","volume":"127","author":"Tcherniak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Ponzo, F.C., Ditommaso, R., Auletta, G., and Ielpo, P. (2023). International Conference on Experimental Vibration Analysis for Civil Engineering Structures, Springer."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ponzo, F.C., Auletta, G., Ielpo, P., and Ditommaso, R. DInSAR\u2013SBAS satellite monitoring of infrastructures: How temperature affects the \u201cPonte della Musica\u201d case study. J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit., 2024.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-023-00751-z"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Muri\u00e0-Vila, D., Camargo, J., Aldama, B.D., Rodr\u00edguez, G., Aguilar, L.A., and Ayala, M. (2013, January 9\u201311). Structural health monitoring of an instrumented building in Mexico with accelerometers and GPS sensors. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring of Intelligent Infrastructure, Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2016.05.027","article-title":"Dynamic displacement estimation by fusing LDV and LiDAR measurements via smoothing based Kalman filtering","volume":"82","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2007.03.012","article-title":"Detecting bridge dynamics with GPS and triaxial accelerometers","volume":"29","author":"Meng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"55","article-title":"GNSS-based multi-sensor system for structural monitoring applications","volume":"6","author":"Bogusz","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7946","DOI":"10.3390\/s21237946","article-title":"Experimental evaluation of smartphone accelerometer and low-cost dual frequency GNSS sensors for deformation monitoring","volume":"21","author":"Teunissen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2124","DOI":"10.1002\/ggge.20144","article-title":"A new seismogeodetic approach applied to GPS and accelerometer observations of the 2012 brawley seismic swarm: Implications for earthquake early warning","volume":"14","author":"Geng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosystems"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, C., Lu, H., and Zhu, J. (2017). Operational modal analysis of bridge structures with data from GNSS\/accelerometer measurements. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17030436"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109453","article-title":"In-situ real-time seismogeodesy by integrating multi-GNSS and accelerometers","volume":"179","author":"Xin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cina, A., Manzino, A.M., and Bendea, I.H. (2019). Improving GNSS Landslide Monitoring with the Use of Low-Cost MEMS Accelerometers. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9235075"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, L., Bao, Y., Sun, Z., Meng, X., Tang, C., and Zhang, D. (2023). Outlier Detection Based on Nelder-Mead Simplex Robust Kalman Filtering for Trustworthy Bridge Structural Health Monitoring. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15092385"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2017.02.005","article-title":"On the feasibility to integrate low-cost mems accelerometers and GNSS receivers","volume":"59","author":"Benedetti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/4\/607\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:55:47Z","timestamp":1760104547000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/4\/607"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16040607"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16040607","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,6]]}}}