{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:52:12Z","timestamp":1760143932155,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,8]],"date-time":"2024-03-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1709856000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Seagrass and seaweed meadows hold a very important role in coastal and marine ecosystems. However, anthropogenic impacts pose risks to these delicate habitats. This paper analyses the multitemporal impact of the construction of the largest industrial port in the Canary Islands, near the Special Area of Conservation Natura 2000, on Cymodocea\u00a0nodosa seagrass meadows (sebadales) of the South of Tenerife, in the locality of Granadilla (Canary Islands, Spain). Very-high-resolution WorldView-2 multispectral satellite data were used for the analysis. Specifically, three images were selected before, during, and after the construction of the port (2011, 2014, and 2022, correspondingly). Initially, advanced pre-processing of the images was performed, and then seabed maps were obtained using the machine learning K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) supervised classification model, discriminating 12 different bottom types in Case-2 complex waters. The maps achieved high-quality metrics with Precision values of 85%, 81%, and 80%, recall of 76%, 77%, and 77%, and F1 scores of 80%, 79%, and 77% for 2011, 2014, and 2022, respectively. The results mainly show that the construction directly affected the seagrass and seaweed habitats. In particular, the impact of the port on the meadows of Cymodocea nodosa, Caulerpa prolifera, and ma\u00ebrl was assessed. The total ma\u00ebrl population was reduced by 1.9 km2 throughout the study area. However, the Cymodocea nodosa population was maintained at the cost of colonizing ma\u00ebrl areas. Furthermore, the port sedimented a total of 0.98 km2 of seabed, especially Cymodocea nodosa and ma\u00ebrl. In addition, it was observed that Caulerpa prolifera was established as a meadow at the entrance of the port, replacing part of the Cymodocea nodosa and ma\u00ebrl areas. As additional results, bathymetric maps were generated from satellite imagery with the Sigmoid model, and the presence of a submarine outfall was, as well, presented.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16060945","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,8]],"date-time":"2024-03-08T03:52:11Z","timestamp":1709869931000},"page":"945","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Effects of the Construction of Granadilla Industrial Port in Seagrass and Seaweed Habitats Using Very-High-Resolution Multispectral Satellite Imagery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1680-0726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Mederos-Barrera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Oceanograf\u00eda y Cambio Global, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Unidad Asociada ULPGC-CSIC, Campus Universitario de Tafira, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Sevilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n del Sector P\u00fablico Estatal Observatorio Ambiental Granadilla, V\u00eda Interior del Puerto de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Edificio Puerto-Ciudad, 38001 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9646-1017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Javier","family":"Marcello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Oceanograf\u00eda y Cambio Global, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Unidad Asociada ULPGC-CSIC, Campus Universitario de Tafira, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda","family":"Espinosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n del Sector P\u00fablico Estatal Observatorio Ambiental Granadilla, V\u00eda Interior del Puerto de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Edificio Puerto-Ciudad, 38001 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0010-4024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Eugenio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Oceanograf\u00eda y Cambio Global, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Unidad Asociada ULPGC-CSIC, Campus Universitario de Tafira, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Green, E.P., and Short, F.T. (2003). World Atlas of Seagrasses, University of California Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hemminga, M.A., and Duarte, C.M. (2000). Seagrass Ecology, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511525551"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Bj\u00f6rk, M., Short, F., Mcleod, E., and Beer, S. (2008). Managing Seagrasses for Resilience to Climate Change (No. 3), IUCN."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1758","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1996.41.8.1758","article-title":"The fate of marine autotrophic production","volume":"41","author":"Duarte","year":"1996","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892902000127","article-title":"The future of seagrass meadows","volume":"29","author":"Duarte","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2006)56[987:AGCFSE]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A global crisis for seagrass ecosystems","volume":"56","author":"Orth","year":"2006","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4096","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.15684","article-title":"Long-term declines and recovery of meadow area across the world\u2019s seagrass bioregions","volume":"27","author":"Dunic","year":"2001","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Espino, F., Tuya, F., Blanch, I., and Haroun, R.J. (2008). Los Sebadales en Canarias. Oasis de Vida en los Fondos Arenosos, BIOGES, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1112551","article-title":"Uncertainty in hurricanes and global warming","volume":"308","author":"Trenberth","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jembe.2007.06.012","article-title":"Global seagrass distribution and diversity: A bioregional model","volume":"350","author":"Short","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1115159","article-title":"Paleoclimatic evidence for future ice-sheet instability and rapid sea-level rise","volume":"311","author":"Overpeck","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"8","article-title":"A review on effect of global climate change on seaweed and seagrass communities","volume":"28","author":"Sunny","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiencke, C., and Bischof, K. (2012). Seaweed biology. Ecol. Stud., 219.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-28451-9"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2012.01224.x","article-title":"Effects of climate change on global seaweed communities","volume":"48","author":"Harley","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1995.40.4.0740","article-title":"Mesocosm experiments quantify the effects of eutrophication on eelgrass, Zostera marina L.","volume":"40","author":"Short","year":"1995","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Ruiz, J.M., Guill\u00e9n, J.E., Ramos-Segura, A., and Otero, M.M. (2015). Atlas de las Praderas Marinas de Espa\u00f1a, Instituto Espa\u00f1ol de Oceanograf\u00eda."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horning, N., Robinson, J.A., Sterling, E.J., and Turner, W. (2010). Remote Sensing for Ecology and Conservation: A Handbook of Techniques, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199219940.003.0023"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Purkis, S.J., and Klemas, V.V. (2011). Remote Sensing and Global Environmental Change, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118687659"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S1054-3139(03)00006-7","article-title":"An overview of seabed-mapping technologies in the context of marine habitat classification","volume":"60","author":"Kenny","year":"2003","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcello, J., Eugenio, F., Mart\u00edn, J., and Marqu\u00e9s, F. (2018). Seabed mapping in coastal shallow waters using high resolution multispectral and hyperspectral imagery. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10081208"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106560","article-title":"Opportunities for seagrass research derived from remote sensing: A review of current methods","volume":"117","author":"Veettil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"102990","article-title":"Seagrass mapping using high resolution multispectral satellite imagery: A comparison of water column correction models","volume":"113","author":"Marcello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5407614","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2021.3135462","article-title":"High Resolution Satellite Bathymetry Mapping: Regression and Machine Learning Based Approaches","volume":"60","author":"Eugenio","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.2216\/i0031-8884-42-6-606.1","article-title":"Comparative growth rates and internal banding periodicity of ma\u00ebrl species (Corallinales, Rhodophyta) from northern Europe","volume":"42","author":"Blake","year":"2003","journal-title":"Phycologia"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S65","DOI":"10.1002\/aqc.569","article-title":"Conservation and management of northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean maerl beds","volume":"13","author":"Barbera","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1071\/MF08335","article-title":"Calcified macroalgae\u2014Critical to coastal ecosystems and vulnerable to change: A review","volume":"60","author":"Nelson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Sathyendranath, S. (2000). Remote Sensing of Ocean Colour in Coastal, and Other Optically-Complex, Waters, International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169608948714","article-title":"The use of the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) in the delineation of open water features","volume":"17","author":"McFeeters","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Updike, T., and Comp, C. (2010). Radiometric Use of WorldView-2 Imagery, DigitalGlobe. Technical Note."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Labsch, H., Handorf, D., Dethloff, K., and Kurgansky, M.V. (2015). Atmospheric circulation regimes in a nonlinear quasi-geostrophic model. Adv. Meteorol., 629429.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/629429"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3539","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2377300","article-title":"High-Resolution Maps of Bathymetry and Benthic Habitats in Shallow-Water Environments Using Multispectral Remote Sensing Imagery","volume":"53","author":"Eugenio","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eugenio, F., Marcello, J., Martin, J., and Rodr\u00edguez-Esparrag\u00f3n, D. (2017). Benthic Habitat Mapping Using Multispectral High-Resolution Imagery: Evaluation of Shallow Water Atmospheric Correction Techniques. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112639"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Vermote, E.F.T.D., Tanr\u00e9, D., Deuz\u00e9, J.L., Herman, M., Morcrette, J.J., and Kotchenova, S.Y. (2006). Second Simulation of a Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum-Vector (6SV), University of Maryland. 6S User Guide Version."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.3390\/rs1040697","article-title":"Sun glint correction of high and low spatial resolution images of aquatic scenes: A review of methods for visible and near-infrared wavelengths","volume":"1","author":"Kay","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.872909","article-title":"Multispectral bathymetry using a simple physically based algorithm","volume":"44","author":"Lyzenga","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2107","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500034086","article-title":"Simple and robust removal of sun glint for mapping shallow-water benthos","volume":"26","author":"Hedley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2012.2183117","article-title":"Automatic moving vehicles information extraction from single-pass WorldView-2 imagery","volume":"5","author":"Salehi","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2022.2030069","article-title":"Vertical artifacts in high-resolution WorldView-2 and WorldView-3 satellite imagery of aquatic systems","volume":"43","author":"Coffer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mather, P., and Tso, B. (2016). Classification Methods for Remotely Sensed Data, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420090741"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6308","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2020.3026724","article-title":"Support vector machine versus random forest for remote sensing image classification: A meta-analysis and systematic review","volume":"13","author":"Sheykhmousa","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.02.001","article-title":"A meta-analysis and review of the literature on the k-Nearest Neighbors technique for forestry applications that use remotely sensed data","volume":"176","author":"Chirici","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1109\/MGRS.2016.2641240","article-title":"Remote Sensing Image Classification: A survey of support-vector-machine-based advanced techniques","volume":"5","author":"Maulik","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Mag."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/MGRS.2017.2762307","article-title":"Deep learning in remote sensing: A comprehensive review and list of resources","volume":"5","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Mag."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111716","article-title":"Deep learning in environmental remote sensing: Achievements and challenges","volume":"241","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"4","article-title":"Nearest neighbor value interpolation","volume":"3","author":"Rukundo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.3354\/meps335019","article-title":"Community metabolism in temperate maerl beds. I. Carbon and carbonate fluxes","volume":"335","author":"Martin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0981(97)00050-6","article-title":"Short-term effects of nutrient enrichment of the sediment and interactions between the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa and the introduced green alga Caulerpa taxi- folia in the Mediterranean bay","volume":"217","author":"Ceccherelli","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016514621586","article-title":"Nutrient availability in the sediment and the reciprocal effects between the native seagrass Cymodocea nodosa and the introduced rhizophytic alga Caulerpa taxifolia","volume":"474","author":"Ceccherelli","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2003.48.1_part_2.0547","article-title":"Determination of water depth with high-resolution satellite imagery over variable bottom types","volume":"48","author":"Stumpf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Gobierno de Canarias (2021). Censo De Vertidos Desde Tierra Al Mar En Canarias: Emisario Submarino de La Batata\u2014Ensenada Pelada (Code 02TFGR, ID 416), Gobierno de Canarias. Available online: https:\/\/www.idecanarias.es\/resources\/Vertidos_2021\/Fichas\/Tenerife\/416.pdf."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Grupo Tragsa (2022). Actualizaci\u00f3n del Censo de Vertidos Desde Tierra al mar en Canarias 2021: Memoria General Canarias, Gobierno de Canarias. Available online: https:\/\/www.gobiernodecanarias.org\/medioambiente\/descargas\/Aguas\/Censo_vertidos_2021\/01-MEMORIAS\/Canarias.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez-Fern\u00e1ndez, J. (2001). Contribuci\u00f3n al Conocimiento del Efecto de Los Emisarios Submarinos y Los Diques Sobre Las Praderas Marinas de\" Cymodocea Nodosa\": Estudio del Emisario Submarino de la Playa de El Cochino y el Dique Del Puerto de Taliarte en Gran Canaria, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/6\/945\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:10:40Z","timestamp":1760105440000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/6\/945"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,8]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16060945"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16060945","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,8]]}}}