{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T08:00:49Z","timestamp":1780387249255,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,16]],"date-time":"2024-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710547200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ambassador's Fund for Cultural Heritage Preservation"},{"name":"Instituto de Inverstigaciones Arqueologicas"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We combined datasets from multiple research projects and remote sensing technologies to evaluate conservation conditions at La Fortaleza de Kuelap, a pre-Hispanic site in Peru that suffered significant damage under heavy seasonal rains in April 2022. To identify the causes of the collapse and where the monument is at further risk, we modeled surface hydrology using a DTM derived from drone LiDAR data, reconstructed a history of collapses, and calculated the volume of the most recent by fusing terrestrial LiDAR and photogrammetric datasets. In addition, we examined subsurface water accumulation with electrical resistivity, reconstructed the stratification of the monument with seismic refraction, and analyzed vegetation loss and ground moisture accumulation using satellite imagery. Our results point to rainwater infiltration as the most significant source of risk for La Fortaleza\u2019s perimeter walls. Combined with other adverse natural conditions and contemporary conservation interventions, this led to the 2022 collapse. Specialists need to consider these factors when tasked with conserving monuments located in comparable high-altitude perhumid environments. This integration of analytical results demonstrates how multi-scalar and multi-instrumental approaches provide comprehensive and timely assessments of conservation needs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16061053","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,18]],"date-time":"2024-03-18T04:25:15Z","timestamp":1710735915000},"page":"1053","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Assessing Conservation Conditions at La Fortaleza de Kuelap, Peru, Based on Integrated Close-Range Remote Sensing and Near-Surface Geophysics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7006-307X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Ghezzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Piura, Estacion Cientifica Ramon Mugica, Piura 20009, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jacek","family":"Ko\u015bciuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Andean Studies, University of Warsaw, 00-927 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8003-4195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Warren","family":"Church","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Space Sciences, Columbus State University, Columbus, GA 31907, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4289-6170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Parker","family":"VanValkenburgh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1035-3905","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bart\u0142omiej","family":"\u0106mielewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of 3D Scanning and Modeling, Department of History of Architecture, Arts and Technology, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthias","family":"Kucera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeology, A-1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0203-3116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142 B.","family":"D\u0105bek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Protection and Development, Wroc\u0142aw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 50-375 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9258-9638","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeff","family":"Contreras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CARETUR Amazonas, Chachapoyas 01001, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nilsson","family":"Mori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Terrasolutions Peru, Lima 15086, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Righetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MEDS Amsterdam, 7556 MZ Hengelo, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Serafini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MEDS Amsterdam, 7556 MZ Hengelo, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9899-7421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carol","family":"Rojas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Proyecto Paisajes Arqueologicos de Chachapoyas, Lima 15036, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Narv\u00e1ez, A. (1987). Ku\u00e9lap: Una ciudad fortificada en los Andes nor-orientales de Amazonas, Per\u00fa. Arqueol. Arquit., 115\u2013142."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Ruiz Estrada, A. (2009). La Alfarer\u00eda de Kuelap: Tradici\u00f3n y Cambio, Avqi Ediciones."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S75","DOI":"10.1080\/00934690.2020.1713287","article-title":"Lasers without lost cities: Using drone lidar to capture architectural complexity at Kuelap, Amazonas, Peru","volume":"45","author":"VanValkenburgh","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Field Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Bandelier, A.F.A. (1907). The Indians and Aboriginal Ruins near Chachapoyas in Northern Peru, Ripol Classic."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Dionne, H. (2021). Indicateurs G\u00e9ographiques et Culturels de la Culture Chachapoya dans le Secteur de Kuelap: Arch\u00e9ologie Spatiale et \u00c9valuation du Potentiel Arch\u00e9ologique, Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Chicoutimi."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Righetti, G., Serafini, S., Brondi, F., Church, W.B., and Garnero, G. (2021, January 13\u201316). Survey of a Peruvian Archaeological Site Using LiDAR and Photogrammetry: A Contribution to the Study of the Chachapoya. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Science and Its Applications\u2014ICCSA 2021, Cagliari, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-86979-3_43"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.7183\/1045-6635.26.3.362","article-title":"Settlement organization and architecture in Late Intermediate Period Chachapoyas, Northeastern Peru","volume":"26","author":"Guengerich","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lat. Am. Antiq."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Mincetur (2023, August 04). Sistema de Informaci\u00f3n Estad\u00edstica de Turismo. Available online: http:\/\/datosturismo.mincetur.gob.pe\/appdatosturismo\/Content2.html."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Mori, N. (2021). Investigaciones Geof\u00edsicas Integradas en Sitios Arqueol\u00f3gicos: Caso de Estudio Fortaleza de Kuelap, Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Alvarez, J. (2017). Estudio An\u00e1lisis Prospectivo de Seguridad F\u00edsica en Geotecnia, Geodin\u00e1mica Externa e Hidrogeolog\u00eda del Acceso 1 y Estructuras Adyacentes, Ministerio de Comercio Exterior y Turismo, Plan COPESCO Nacional, Unidad de Ejecucion de Obras."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez, R., Giraldo, E., Cueva, E., S\u00e1nchez, E., and Cornejo, T. (2012). Geolog\u00eda del Cuadr\u00e1ngulo de Chachapoyas (13-h), INGEMMET."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Minelli, L. (2000). The Inca World: The Development of Pre-Columbian Peru, AD 1000-1534, University of Oklahoma Press."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Young, B.E. (2007). Endemic Species Distribution on the Eastern Slope of the Andes in Peru and Bolivia, NatureServe."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Young, K.R., and Le\u00f3n, B. (1999). Peru\u2019s Humid Eastern Montane Forests: An Overview of Their Physical Settings, Biological Diversity, Human Use and Settlement, and Conservation Needs, Centre for Research on the Cultural and Biological Diversity of Andean Rainforests (DIVA)."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Herzog, S.K., Martinez, R., J\u00f8rgensen, P.M., and Tiesse, H. (2011). Climate Change and Biodiversity in the Tropical Andes, Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI)."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1111\/ecog.01050","article-title":"The inability of tropical cloud forest species to invade grasslands above treeline during climate change: Potential explanations and consequences","volume":"38","author":"Rehm","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2024.108518","article-title":"Wet and dry events influenced colonization of a mid-elevation Andean forest","volume":"327","author":"Sales","year":"2024","journal-title":"Quat. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Koschmieder, K. (2012). Jucusbamba: Investigaciones Arqueol\u00f3gicas y Motivos Chachapoya en el Norte de la Provincia de Luya, Departamento Amazonas, Per\u00fa, Ministerio de Agricultura."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"57","article-title":"Gran Pajat\u00e9n y su contexto en el paisaje prehisp\u00e1nico Pataz-Abiseo","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Church","year":"2017","journal-title":"\u00bfQue Fue Chachapoyas? Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias en el Estudio de los Andes Nororientales del Peru"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"313","article-title":"Una mirada hacia el futuro: Nuevas direcciones en la arqueolog\u00eda de los Andes nororientales","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Church","year":"2017","journal-title":"\u00bfQue Fue Chachapoyas? Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias en el Estudio de los Andes Nororientales del Peru"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1177\/0959683615585837","article-title":"Climate change and the agricultural history of a mid-elevation Andean montane forest","volume":"25","author":"Bush","year":"2015","journal-title":"Holocene"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"66","article-title":"2100 years of human adaptation to climate change in the High Andes","volume":"4","author":"Bitting","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"V\u00e1zquez de Espinosa, A. (1968). Description of the Indies (c. 1620), Reprint ed., Smithsonian Institution Press."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Cook, N.D. (2004). Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520\u20131620, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5892","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.7567","article-title":"Spatiotemporal climate variability in the Andes of northern Peru: Evaluation of gridded datasets to describe cloud forest microclimate and local rainfall","volume":"42","author":"Newell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lutz, D.A., Powell, R.L., and Silman, M.R. (2013). Four decades of Andean timberline migration and implications for biodiversity loss with climate change. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0074496"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12950","article-title":"Impacts of anthropogenic climate change on tropical montane forests: An appraisal of the evidence","volume":"98","author":"Soh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"41","article-title":"Sobre las formas de sepultamiento prehisp\u00e1nico en Kuelap, Amazonas","volume":"20","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arqueol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Church, W., Guengerich, A., and Mauricio, A.C. (2017). \u00bfQue Fue Chachapoyas? Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias en el Estudio de los Andes Nororientales del Per\u00fa, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica del Per\u00fa. Boletin de Arqueologia PUCP."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Church, W., Guengerich, A., and Mauricio, A.C. (2017). \u00bfQue Fue Chachapoyas? Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias en el Estudio de los Andes Nororientales del Per\u00fa, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica del Per\u00fa. Bolet\u00edn de Arqueolog\u00eda PUCP."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Castillo, L.J., and Mujica, E. (2018). Per\u00fa Prehisp\u00e1nico: Un Estado de la Cuesti\u00f3n, Colecci\u00f3n Qillqa Mayu; Ministerio de Cultura, Direcci\u00f3n Desconcentrada de Cultura de Cusco."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Kaufmann, F. (2013). Los Chachapoyas, Banco de Credito del Peru. Arte y Tesoros del Antiguo Peru."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Church, W., Guengerich, A., and Mauricio, A.C. (2017). \u00bfQue Fue Chachapoyas? Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias en el Estudio de los Andes Nororientales del Per\u00fa, Pontificia Universidad Cat\u00f3lica del Per\u00fa. Bolet\u00edn de Arqueolog\u00eda PUCP."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Narv\u00e1ez, A. (2018). Ku\u00e9lap Gu\u00eda de Visita, Mincetur. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaa.2013.12.005","article-title":"The architect\u2019s signature: The social production of a residential landscape at Monte Viudo, Chachapoyas, Peru","volume":"34","author":"Guengerich","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Anthropol. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Lerche, P. (1995). Los Chachapoya y los Simbolos de su Historia, Gayoso."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17411","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-17728-w","article-title":"Enclaves of genetic diversity resisted Inca impacts on population history","volume":"7","author":"Barbieri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guevara, E.K., Palo, J.U., \u00d6versti, S., King, J.L., Seidel, M., Stoljarova, M., Wendt, F.R., Bus, M.M., Guengerich, A., and Church, W.B. (2020). Genetic assessment reveals no population substructure and divergent regional and sex-specific histories in the Chachapoyas from northeast Peru. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0244497"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Church, W., Guengerich, A., and Mauricio, A.C. (2017). \u00bfQue Fue Chachapoyas? Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias en el Estudio de los Andes Nororientales del Peru, Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru. Bolet\u00edn de Arqueolog\u00eda PUCP."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Jolkesky, M.P.D.V. (2016). Estudo Arqueo-Ecolingu\u00edstico das Terras Tropicais Sul-Americanas. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade de Bras\u00edlia]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.30920\/letras.87.125.1","article-title":"Vestigios de una lengua originaria en el territorio de la cultura chachapoya","volume":"87","author":"Valqui","year":"2016","journal-title":"Letras"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.30920\/letras.94.139.2","article-title":"Observaciones metodol\u00f3gicas sobre el estudio de lenguas extintas en el nororiente peruano: El caso del chacha","volume":"94","author":"Ziemendorff","year":"2023","journal-title":"Letras"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"131","article-title":"Consideraciones hist\u00f3rico-ling\u00fc\u00edsticas acerca del top\u00f3nimo Ku\u00e9lap","volume":"40","author":"Culqui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indiana-Estud. Antropol\u00f3gicos Sobre Am\u00e9rica Lat. Caribe"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.langsci.2020.101354","article-title":"Linguistic and cultural divisions in pre-Hispanic Northern Peru","volume":"85","author":"Urban","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lang. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Scherer, A.K., and Verano, J. (2014). Embattled Bodies, Embattled Places, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Church, W., Guengerich, A., and Mauricio, A.C. (2017). \u00bfQue Fue Chachapoyas? Aproximaciones Interdisciplinarias en el Estudio de los Andes Nororientales del Peru, Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru. Boletin de Arqueologia PUCP."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Schjellerup, I. (1997). Incas and Spaniards in the Conquest of the Chachapoyas: Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Research in the North-Eastern Andes of Peru, G\u00f6teborg University, Department of Archaeology."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"224","article-title":"Los se\u00f1or\u00edos \u00e9tnicos de Chachapoyas y la alianza hispano-chacha: Siglos XV\u2013XVI","volume":"30","year":"1967","journal-title":"Rev. Hist\u00f3rica"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Rangel Flores, V. (1988). Arquitectura y Arqueolog\u00eda: Pasado y Futuro de la Construcci\u00f3n en el Per\u00fa, Museo Bruning."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Bradley, R. (2005). The Architecture of Kuelap\n          . [Ph.D. Thesis, Columbia University]."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silliman, S.W. (2018). Engaging Archaeology: 25 Case Studies in Research Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119240549"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1086\/425660","article-title":"Interpreting conflict in the ancient Andes: Implications for the archaeology of warfare","volume":"46","author":"Arkush","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Anthropol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s10814-006-9009-0","article-title":"Baffles and bastions: The universal features of fortifications","volume":"15","author":"Keeley","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Archaeol. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hardoy, J.E. (2014). Pre-Columbian Cities, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203717394"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Raimondi, A. (1874). El Per\u00fa, Imprenta del Estado, Sociedad Geogr\u00e1fica de Lima."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"153","article-title":"Expedicion Organizada por el Se\u00f1or Alayza, Prefecto de Amazonas, \u00e1 Indicaci\u00f3n de la Sociedad Geogr\u00e1fica de Lima, Para Hacer Nuevos Estudios de la Fortaleza de Cuelap","volume":"II","author":"Alayza","year":"1892","journal-title":"Bolet\u00edn De La Soc. Geogr\u00e1fica De Lima"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"147","article-title":"Ruinas de la fortaleza de Cuelap","volume":"II","author":"Wertheman","year":"1892","journal-title":"Bolet\u00edn De La Soc. Geogr\u00e1fica De Lima"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Middendorf, E.W. (1893). Peru; Beobachtungen und Studien \u00fcber das Land und Seine Bewohner W\u00e4hrend Eines 25 J\u00e4hrigen Aufenthalts, R. Oppenheim."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Kieffer, P. (1910). Excursion a Cuelap: Departamento de Amazonas\u2014Per\u00fa, Fragmentos de las Notas del P. Ph. Kieffer, Libr. Francesa Cient\u00edfica Galland, E. Rosay."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"20","article-title":"Las ruinas de Cuelap","volume":"51","author":"Langlois","year":"1934","journal-title":"Bolet\u00edn Soc. Geogr\u00e1fica Lima"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Langlois, L. (1939). Utcubamba: Investigaciones Arqueol\u00f3gicas en el Valle de Utcubamba (Departamento de Amazonas, Per\u00fa), Impr. del Museo Nacional."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.3406\/jsa.1950.2388","article-title":"Recherches arch\u00e9ologiques dans les Andes du Haut Utcubamba: Deuxi\u00e8me rapport de la Mission Ethnologique Fran\u00e7aise au Perou Septentrional","volume":"39","author":"Reichlen","year":"1950","journal-title":"J. Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Am\u00e9ricanistes"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Horkheimer, H. (1958, January 4\u20139). Algunas consideraciones acerca de la arqueologia en el valle del Utcubamba. Proceedings of the II Congreso Nacional de Historia del Peru, Lima, Peru."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Contreras, J. (2023). Historia Clinica de Kuelap, Report to World Monuments Fund Peru."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"6","article-title":"Sotto le Nuvole, sotto la Foresta: Applicazioni Tecnologiche Lidar e di Intelligenza Artificiale per Nuove prospettive nel Sito monumentale di Kuelap-Per\u00fa","volume":"11","author":"Righetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Archeomatica"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Barriga, J. (2019). Estudio Geofisico: Tomografia Electrica y Sondeo Electrico Vertical, Plan COPESCO."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2016.12.012","article-title":"Comparison of different sets of array configurations for multichannel 2D ERT acquisition","volume":"137","author":"Martorana","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Orellana, E. (1981). Prospeccion Geoelectrica en Corriente Continua, Ediciones Paraninfo. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"ALEPH Asociados (2022). Elaboraci\u00f3n del Expediente T\u00e9cnico Para la Intervenci\u00f3n del Acceso 1, B\u00f3veda y Estructuras Adyacentes en el Complejo Arqueol\u00f3gico Ku\u00e9lap, Regi\u00f3n Amazonas, Report to Ministerio de Cultura del Peru."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Mori, N. (2023). Contrataci\u00f3n de Servicio Para la Determinaci\u00f3n de la Estratigraf\u00eda del \u00c1rea Nuclear de la Zona Arqueol\u00f3gica Monumental de Ku\u00e9lap, Ministerio de Cultura."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"UNESCO (2022). Hoja de Ruta Para la Intervencion Sistematica e Interdisciplinaria Que Conlleve a la Recuperacion y Conservacion Sostenible del Sitio Arqueologico Fortaleza de Kuelap, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Vilcapoma, O. (2023). Informe Tecnico de Levantamiento Lidar: Sitio Arqueologico Kuelap, Report to World Monuments Fund Peru."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2019.10.003","article-title":"3D laser scanning and close-range photogrammetry for buildings documentation: A hybrid technique towards a better accuracy","volume":"58","author":"Fawzy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alex. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Agisoft (2022, January 28). Agisoft Metashape User Manual. Professional Edition, Version 2.0. Available online: https:\/\/www.agisoft.com\/pdf\/metashape-pro_32_30_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Ko\u015bciuk, J. (2023, December 30). Peter Grossmann\u2019s Sense of Field Drawings and Its Legacy. Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d\u2019Arch\u00e9ologie Copte. Available online: https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/95676907\/PETER_GROSSMANNS_SENSE_OF_FIELD_DRAWINGS."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"94","article-title":"Architectural Survey and Recording","volume":"Volume 1","year":"2012","journal-title":"Athribis I. General Site Survey"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00067594","article-title":"Application of sky-view factor for the visualisation of historic landscape features in lidar-derived relief models","volume":"85","author":"Kokalj","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Crutchley, S., and Crow, P. (2010). The Light Fantastic: Using Airborne Lidar in Archaeological Survey, English Heritage."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00096952","article-title":"Visualisation of LiDAR terrain models for archaeological feature detection","volume":"82","author":"Devereux","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.1414","article-title":"A comparison of visualization techniques for models created from airborne laser scanned data","volume":"19","author":"Bennett","year":"2012","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00097775","article-title":"Airborne lidar and historic environment records","volume":"82","author":"Challis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antiquity"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3020398","article-title":"Sky-view factor as a relief visualization technique","volume":"3","author":"Kokalj","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2013.848985","article-title":"General sky models for illuminating terrains","volume":"28","author":"Kennelly","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.421","article-title":"A generic toolkit for the visualization of archaeological features on airborne LiDAR elevation data","volume":"18","author":"Challis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Medina, G. (1999). El Drenaje Como Medio de Conservacion de la Fortaleza de Kuelap. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria]."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Bengtsson, L.B. (2000). Prehistoric Stonework in the Peruvian Andes: A Case Study at Ollantaytambo, G\u00f6teborg University."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Gasparini, G., and Margolies, L. (1980). Inca Architecture, Indiana University Press."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.2307\/990027","article-title":"Inca quarrying and stonecutting","volume":"44","author":"Protzen","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Soc. Archit. Hist."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0286-94","article-title":"Inca stonemasonry","volume":"254","author":"Protzen","year":"1986","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"Protzen, J.-P. (1993). Inca Architecture and Construction at Ollantaytambo, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.2307\/991281","article-title":"Who taught the Inca stonemasons their skills? A comparison of Tiahuanaco and Inca cut-stone masonry","volume":"56","author":"Protzen","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Soc. Archit. Hist."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Protzen, J.-P., and Nair, S. (2013). The Stones of Tiahuanaco: A Study of Architecture and Construction, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvdmwwsq"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"353","article-title":"Tecnomorfolog\u00eda de la llaqta inka de Machupicchu. Materiales, m\u00e9todos y resultados del levantamiento arquitect\u00f3nico y paisaj\u00edstico","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Astete","year":"2020","journal-title":"Machupicchu. Investigaciones Interdisciplinarias"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zi\u00f3\u0142kowski, M., Masini, N., and Bastante, J.M. (2022). Machu Picchu in Context: Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Human Past, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-92766-0"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"328","article-title":"Overview on current modelling strategies of point clouds for deformation analysis","volume":"123","author":"Neuner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Allg. Vermess.-Nachrichten AVN Z. F\u00fcr Alle Bereiche Der Geod\u00e4sie Und Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.108291","article-title":"Validation of terrestrial laser scanning and artificial intelligence for measuring deformations of cultural heritage structures","volume":"167","author":"Wojtkowska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Lasaponara, R., and Masini, N. (2023). MT-InSAR Remote Sensing Technique to Assess Conservation Conditions of Kuelap, Report to World Monuments Fund Peru."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Ruiz Estrada, A. (2010). Amazonas: Arqueologia e Historia, Universidad Alas Peruanas."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Fawcett, R. (2001). The Conservation of Architectural Ancient Monuments in Scotland. Guidance on Principles, Historic Scotland, Longmore House, Salisbury Place."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Narv\u00e1ez, A. (1986). Proyecto Kuelap Informe Final: Noviembre 1985\u2014Marzo 1986, Report to Instituto Nacional de Cultura."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2013.10.027","article-title":"Effects of trees on infiltrability and preferential flow in two contrasting agroecosystems in Central America","volume":"183","author":"Benegas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"883","article-title":"Diversidad natural y cultural del Complejo Arqueol\u00f3gico Ku\u00e9lap (provincia Luya, regi\u00f3n Amazonas): La fortaleza de los hombres de las nubes","volume":"26","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arnaldoa"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"(2023, December 30). GoldenSoftware. Available online: https:\/\/www.goldensoftware.com\/products\/surfer."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Haynes, H. (2022). Utilizing Geographic Information Systems to Explore the Mortuary Landscape at Kuelap, Peru. [Masters\u2019s Thesis, University of Central Florida]."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1007\/s40098-019-00362-w","article-title":"Effect of slope angle on the stability of a slope under rainfall infiltration","volume":"49","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2011.10.029","article-title":"Geomorphic process rates of landslides along a humidity gradient in the tropical Andes","volume":"139","author":"Muenchow","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/6\/1053\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:14:32Z","timestamp":1760105672000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/6\/1053"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,16]]},"references-count":106,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16061053"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16061053","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,16]]}}}