{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T13:45:06Z","timestamp":1774878306090,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,20]],"date-time":"2024-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710892800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNL16AA05C"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNL16AA05C"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020-38420-30727"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-38420-30727"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"US Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NNL16AA05C"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNL16AA05C"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"US Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020-38420-30727"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-38420-30727"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>While protected areas (PAs) are an important conservation strategy to protect vulnerable ecosystems and species, recent analyses question their effectiveness in curbing deforestation and maintaining landscape connectivity. The spatial arrangement of forests inside and outside of PAs may affect ecosystem functioning and wildlife movement. The Osa Peninsula\u2014and Costa Rica in general\u2014are unique conservation case studies due to their high biodiversity, extensive PA network, environmental policies, and payment for ecosystem services (PES) programs. This study explores the relationship between forest management initiatives\u2014specifically PAs, the 1996 Forest Law, and PES\u2014and forest cover and landscape metrics in the Osa Conservation Area (ACOSA). The Google Earth Engine API was used to process Surface Reflectance Tier 1 Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager data for 1987, 1998, and 2019, years with relatively cloud-free satellite imagery. Land use\/land cover (LULC) maps were generated with the pixel-based random forest machine learning algorithm, and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), and functional landscape metrics were calculated. The LULC maps are the first to track land use change, from 1987 to 2019 and the first to separately classify mature and secondary forest in the region, and have already proven useful for conservation efforts. The results suggest that forest cover, NDVI, EVI, and structural connectivity increased from 1987 to 2019 across the study area, both within and surrounding the PAs, suggesting minimal deforestation encroachment and local leakage. These changes may have contributed to the increasing vertebrate abundance observed in the region. PAs, especially national parks with stricter conservation regulations, displayed the highest forest cover and connectivity. Forest cover increased in properties receiving PES payments. Following the Forest Law\u2019s 1996 deforestation ban, both forest conversion and reforestation rates decreased, suggesting the law curbed deforestation but did not drive reforestation across the region. Connectivity outside of PAs slightly declined following the adoption of the law, so the subsequent forest growth likely occurred in mostly previously unforested areas. Forest expansion alone does not ensure connectivity. We highlight the importance of developing policies, PES programs, and monitoring systems that emphasize conserving and restoring large, connected forest patches for biodiversity conservation and landscape resilience. Resumen: Aunque las \u00e1reas protegidas (APs) son una importante estrategia de conservaci\u00f3n para proteger ecosistemas y especies vulnerables, algunos an\u00e1lisis recientes cuestionan su eficacia para frenar la deforestaci\u00f3n y mantener la conectividad del paisaje. La distribuci\u00f3n espacial de los bosques dentro y fuera de las AP puede afectar el funcionamiento de los ecosistemas y los movimientos de la fauna. La Pen\u00ednsula de Osa\u2013y Costa Rica en general\u2013constituyen casos de estudio \u00fanicos de conservaci\u00f3n debido a su elevada biodiversidad, su extensa red de AP, sus pol\u00edticas medioambientales y sus programas de Pago por Servicios Ambientales (PSA). Este estudio explora la relaci\u00f3n entre APs, la Ley Forestal de 1996, PSA, cobertura y m\u00e9tricas del paisaje en el \u00c1rea de Conservaci\u00f3n Osa (ACOSA). Se utiliz\u00f3 la plataforma Google Earth Engine API para procesar datos de Reflectancia Superficial Tier 1 Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper y Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager para 1987, 1998 y 2019, a\u00f1os con im\u00e1genes satelitales relativamente libres de nubes. Se generaron mapas de uso del suelo con el algoritmo de aprendizaje autom\u00e1tico basado en pixeles Random Forest, y se calcularon el \u00edndice de vegetaci\u00f3n de diferencia normalizada (NDVI), el \u00edndice de vegetaci\u00f3n mejorado (EVI) y las m\u00e9tricas de paisaje funcionales. Estos mapas, los primeros en clasificar por separado los bosques maduros y secundarios de la regi\u00f3n, han demostrado su utilidad para los esfuerzos de conservaci\u00f3n. Los resultados sugieren que la cobertura forestal, el NDVI, el EVI y la conectividad estructural aumentaron entre 1987 y 2019 en toda la regi\u00f3n de estudio, tanto dentro de las AP como en sus alrededores, lo que sugiere una expansi\u00f3n m\u00ednima de la deforestaci\u00f3n dentro y fuera de las AP. Estos cambios pueden haber contribuido al aumento de la abundancia de vertebrados observado en la regi\u00f3n. Las AP, especialmente los parques nacionales con regulaciones de conservaci\u00f3n m\u00e1s estrictas, mostraron la mayor cobertura forestal y conectividad. La cobertura forestal aument\u00f3 en aquellas propiedades que recibieron PSA. Tras la prohibici\u00f3n de la deforestaci\u00f3n por la Ley Forestal de 1996, disminuyeron tanto las tasas de conversi\u00f3n forestal como las de reforestaci\u00f3n, lo que sugiere que la ley fren\u00f3 la deforestaci\u00f3n, pero no impuls\u00f3 la reforestaci\u00f3n. La conectividad fuera de las AP disminuy\u00f3 ligeramente tras la entrada en vigor de la ley, lo que sugiere que el crecimiento forestal posterior se produjo en zonas que antes no estaban forestadas. Por lo tanto, la expansi\u00f3n forestal por s\u00ed sola no garantiza la conectividad. Resaltamos la importancia de desarrollar pol\u00edticas, programas PSA y sistemas de monitoreo que hagan hincapi\u00e9 en la conservaci\u00f3n y restauraci\u00f3n de grandes zonas forestales conectadas para apuntalar la conservaci\u00f3n de la biodiversidad y la resiliencia del paisaje.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16061088","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,20]],"date-time":"2024-03-20T09:14:33Z","timestamp":1710926073000},"page":"1088","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Increasing Forest Cover and Connectivity Both Inside and Outside of Protected Areas in Southwestern Costa Rica"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2514-1411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hilary","family":"Brumberg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Osa Conservation, Puerto Jim\u00e9nez, Puntarenas 60702, Costa Rica"},{"name":"Department of Environmental Studies, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Furey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA DEVELOP National Program, Center for Geospatial Research, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA"}]},{"given":"Marie G.","family":"Bouffard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA DEVELOP National Program, Center for Geospatial Research, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA"},{"name":"Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA"},{"name":"Spatial Analysis Laboratory (SAL), Rubenstein School of Environment & Natural Resources, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Jos\u00e9","family":"Mata Quir\u00f3s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osa Conservation, Puerto Jim\u00e9nez, Puntarenas 60702, Costa Rica"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4067-4734","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hikari","family":"Murayama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA DEVELOP National Program, Center for Geospatial Research, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA"},{"name":"Energy and Resources Group, University of California, Berkeley, CA 92720, USA"},{"name":"Global Policy Lab, Goldman School of Public Policy, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA"}]},{"given":"Soroush","family":"Neyestani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA DEVELOP National Program, Center for Geospatial Research, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA"},{"name":"School of Environmental, Civil, Agricultural, and Mechanical Engineering, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA"},{"name":"Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA"}]},{"given":"Emily","family":"Pauline","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA DEVELOP National Program, Center for Geospatial Research, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA"},{"name":"S&P Global Sustainable1, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6197-996X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew","family":"Whitworth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osa Conservation, Puerto Jim\u00e9nez, Puntarenas 60702, Costa Rica"},{"name":"Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK"},{"name":"Department of Biology, Center for Energy, Environment, and Sustainability, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27106, USA"}]},{"given":"Marguerite","family":"Madden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA DEVELOP National Program, Center for Geospatial Research, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1038\/nature22900","article-title":"Future Threats to Biodiversity and Pathways to Their Prevention","volume":"546","author":"Tilman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aap9565","article-title":"One-Third of Global Protected Land Is under Intense Human Pressure","volume":"360","author":"Jones","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw2869","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aaw2869","article-title":"A Global Deal for Nature: Guiding Principles, Milestones, and Targets","volume":"5","author":"Dinerstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. 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