{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:55:26Z","timestamp":1760144126841,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]],"date-time":"2024-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711324800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MOE)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2021R1I1A1A01045062"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2021R1I1A1A01045062"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Temperature and water vapor play crucial roles in the Earth\u2019s climate system, and it is important to understand and monitor the variation in the thermodynamic profile within the lower troposphere. Among various observation platforms for understanding the vertical structure of temperature and humidity, ground-based Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) can provide detailed information about the lower troposphere by complementing the limitations of radiosonde or satellite methods. However, these ground-based systems have limitations in terms of cost, operation, and mobility. Herein, we introduce a cost-effective and easily deployable FTIR observation system designed to enhance monitoring capabilities for atmospheric conditions. The atmospheric downwelling radiance spectrum of sky is measured by applying a real-time radiative calibration using a blackbody. From the observed radiance spectrum, the thermodynamic profile (temperature and the water vapor mixing ratio) of the lower troposphere was retrieved using an algorithm based on the optimal estimation method (OEM). The retrieved vertical structure results in the lower troposphere were similar to the fifth-generation reanalysis database (ERA-5) of the European Center for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction final analysis (NCEP FNL). This provides a potential possibility for monitoring atmospheric conditions by a compact FTIR system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16071136","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]],"date-time":"2024-03-25T12:28:06Z","timestamp":1711369686000},"page":"1136","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Measurement of Downwelling Radiance Using a Low-Cost Compact Fourier-Transform Infrared System for Monitoring Atmospheric Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5117-1406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haklim","family":"Choi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kyungpook Institute of Oceanography, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea"}]},{"given":"Jongjin","family":"Seo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA"},{"name":"Space Science and Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005319109110","article-title":"Atmospheric moisture residence times and cycling: Implications for rainfall rates and climate change","volume":"39","author":"Trenberth","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1002\/2014RG000476","article-title":"A review of the remote sensing of lower tropospheric thermodynamic profiles and its indispensable role for the understanding and the simulation of water and energy cycles","volume":"53","author":"Wulfmeyer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3925","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-39559-2","article-title":"Stratospheric water vapor affecting atmospheric circulation","volume":"14","author":"Charlesworth","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1175\/2008WAF2007046.1","article-title":"The temporal evolution of convective indices in storm-producing environments","volume":"23","author":"Wagner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Weather Forec."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-015-0095-8","article-title":"Assessment of planetary boundary-layer schemes in the weather research and forecasting mesoscale model using MATERHORN field data","volume":"159","author":"Dimitrova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Boundary-Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.09.032","article-title":"Linkages between aerosol pollution and planetary boundary layer structure in China","volume":"650","author":"Miao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00121563","article-title":"Interaction between soil hydrology and boundary-layer development","volume":"38","author":"Pan","year":"1987","journal-title":"Boundary-Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (2014). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2014, World Meteorological Organization (WMO)."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Board, S.S., and National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, Medicine (2019). Thriving on Our Changing Planet: A Decadal Strategy for Earth Observation from Space, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Cayla, F.R. (1993). High Spectral Resolution Infrared Remote Sensing for Earth\u2019s Weather and Climate Studies, Springer."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12734","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020344","article-title":"Suomi NPP CrIS measurements, sensor data record algorithm, calibration and validation activities, and record data quality","volume":"118","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.366","article-title":"Identification of NWP humidity biases using high-peaking water vapour channels from IASI","volume":"13","author":"Hilton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1992)031<0265:VRAAOA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Vertical resolution and accuracy of atmospheric infrared sounding spectrometers","volume":"31","author":"Huang","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2004)043<1295:AIATRP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An integrated approach toward retrieving physically consistent profiles of temperature, humidity, and cloud liquid water","volume":"43","author":"Crewell","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"3723","article-title":"The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) program network of microwave radiometers: Instrumentation, data, and retrievals","volume":"6","author":"Cadeddu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2003)042<0584:NPOTMA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Near-continuous profiling of temperature, moisture, and atmospheric stability using the Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI)","volume":"42","author":"Feltz","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Council, N.R. (2009). Observing Weather and Climate from the Ground Up: A Nationwide Network of Networks, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(2000)081<1301:CWBPFO>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Continuous water vapor profiles from operational ground-based active and passive remote sensors","volume":"81","author":"Turner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-12-00187.1","article-title":"Ground-based remote retrievals of cumulus entrainment rates","volume":"30","author":"Wagner","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turner, D.D. (2008). Ground-based infrared retrievals of optical depth, effective radius, and composition of airborne mineral dust above the Sahel. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD010054"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seo, J., Choi, H., and Oh, Y. (2022). Potential of AOD retrieval using atmospheric emitted radiance interferometer (AERI). Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14020407"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.14191\/Atmos.2015.25.4.601","article-title":"Infrared emissivity of major minerals measured by FT-IR","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J., Kim, D., Kim, H., Lee, J., and Chung, W. (2021). Thermal radiative copper oxide layer for enhancing heat dissipation of metal surface. Nanomaterials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11112819"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15224","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71635-1","article-title":"Small-scale volcanic aerosols variability, processes and direct radiative impact at Mount Etna during the EPL-RADIO campaigns","volume":"10","author":"Sellitto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3210","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.27.003210","article-title":"Radiometric calibration of IR Fourier transform spectrometers: Solution to a problem with the High-Resolution Interferometer Sounder","volume":"27","author":"Revercomb","year":"1988","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3817","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-8-3817-2008","article-title":"REFIR-PAD level 1 data analysis and performance characterization","volume":"8","author":"Bianchini","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-1662.1","article-title":"Atmospheric emitted radiance interferometer. Part I: Instrument design","volume":"21","author":"Knuteson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-1663.1","article-title":"Atmospheric emitted radiance interferometer. Part II: Instrument performance","volume":"21","author":"Knuteson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-009-0035-4","article-title":"Laboratory technique for quantitative thermal emissivity measurements of geological samples","volume":"118","author":"Mathew","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15761","DOI":"10.1029\/92JD01419","article-title":"Line-by-line calculations of atmospheric fluxes and cooling rates: Application to water vapor","volume":"97","author":"Clough","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2004.05.058","article-title":"Atmospheric radiative transfer modeling: A summary of the AER codes","volume":"91","author":"Clough","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Stamnes, K., Tsay, S., and Istvan, L. (2000). DISORT Report v1.1, Deptartment of Physics and Engineering Physics, Stevens Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2502","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.27.002502","article-title":"Numerically stable algorithm for discrete-ordinate-method radiative transfer in multiple scattering and emitting layered media","volume":"27","author":"Stamnes","year":"1988","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2013.07.002","article-title":"The HITRAN2012 molecular spectroscopic database","volume":"130","author":"Rothman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2159","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-2159-2018","article-title":"The water vapour self-continuum absorption in the infrared atmospheric windows: New laser measurements near 3.3 and 2.0 \u00b5m","volume":"11","author":"Lechevallier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-4073(97)00231-8","article-title":"Rapid approximation to the Voigt\/Faddeeva function and its derivatives","volume":"62","author":"Wells","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodgers, C.D. (2000). Inverse Methods for Atmospheric Sounding: Theory and Practice, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812813718"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-13-0126.1","article-title":"Information content and uncertainties in thermodynamic profiles and liquid cloud properties retrieved from the ground-based Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI)","volume":"53","author":"Turner","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7372","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-12-00558.1","article-title":"Climate change from 1850 to 2005 simulated in CESM1 (WACCM)","volume":"26","author":"Marsh","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.41.001181","article-title":"Computation of a spectrum from a single-beam Fourier-transform infrared interferogram","volume":"41","author":"Ifarraguerri","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"National Centers for Environmental Prediction\/National Weather Service\/NOAA\/U.S. Department of Commerce (2024, March 23). 2015, Updated Daily. NCEP GDAS\/FNL 0.25 Degree Global Tropospheric Analyses and Forecast Grids. Research Data Archive at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Computational and Information Systems Laboratory. Available online: https:\/\/rda.ucar.edu\/datasets\/ds083.3\/."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/7\/1136\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:18:08Z","timestamp":1760105888000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/7\/1136"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16071136"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16071136","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,25]]}}}