{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T15:39:02Z","timestamp":1779291542604,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,7]],"date-time":"2024-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712448000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFC3604704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3604704"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42271433"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271433"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42101184"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42101184"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JCRCYG-2022-003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCRCYG-2022-003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20224ABC03A05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224ABC03A05"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2023YFC3604704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3604704"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42271433"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271433"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42101184"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42101184"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["JCRCYG-2022-003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCRCYG-2022-003"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["20224ABC03A05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224ABC03A05"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016345","name":"Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFC3604704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3604704"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016345","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016345","name":"Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42271433"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271433"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016345","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016345","name":"Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42101184"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42101184"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016345","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016345","name":"Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JCRCYG-2022-003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCRCYG-2022-003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016345","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016345","name":"Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20224ABC03A05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224ABC03A05"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016345","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100016345","name":"Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100016345","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial 03 Special Foundation and 5G Program","award":["2023YFC3604704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3604704"]}]},{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial 03 Special Foundation and 5G Program","award":["42271433"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271433"]}]},{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial 03 Special Foundation and 5G Program","award":["42101184"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42101184"]}]},{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial 03 Special Foundation and 5G Program","award":["JCRCYG-2022-003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCRCYG-2022-003"]}]},{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial 03 Special Foundation and 5G Program","award":["20224ABC03A05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224ABC03A05"]}]},{"name":"Jiangxi Provincial 03 Special Foundation and 5G Program","award":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"]}]},{"name":"Wuhan University Specific Fund for Major School-level Internationalization Initiatives","award":["2023YFC3604704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3604704"]}]},{"name":"Wuhan University Specific Fund for Major School-level Internationalization Initiatives","award":["42271433"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271433"]}]},{"name":"Wuhan University Specific Fund for Major School-level Internationalization Initiatives","award":["42101184"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42101184"]}]},{"name":"Wuhan University Specific Fund for Major School-level Internationalization Initiatives","award":["JCRCYG-2022-003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCRCYG-2022-003"]}]},{"name":"Wuhan University Specific Fund for Major School-level Internationalization Initiatives","award":["20224ABC03A05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224ABC03A05"]}]},{"name":"Wuhan University Specific Fund for Major School-level Internationalization Initiatives","award":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"]}]},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE)","award":["2023YFC3604704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFC3604704"]}]},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE)","award":["42271433"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42271433"]}]},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE)","award":["42101184"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42101184"]}]},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE)","award":["JCRCYG-2022-003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCRCYG-2022-003"]}]},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE)","award":["20224ABC03A05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20224ABC03A05"]}]},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE)","award":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WHU-GJZDZX-PT07"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Air pollution has been standing as one of the most pressing global challenges. The changing patterns of air pollutants at different spatial and temporal scales have been substantially studied all over the world, which, however, were intricately disturbed by COVID-19 and subsequent containment measures. Understanding fine-scale changing patterns of air pollutants at different stages over the epidemic\u2019s course is necessary for better identifying region-specific drivers of air pollution and preparing for environmental decision making during future epidemics. Taking China as an example, this study developed a multi-output LightGBM approach to estimate monthly concentrations of the six major air pollutants (i.e., PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, O3, and CO) in China and revealed distinct spatiotemporal patterns for each pollutant over the epidemic\u2019s course. The 5-year period of 2019\u20132023 was selected to observe changes in the concentrations of air pollutants from the pre-COVID-19 era to the lifting of all containment measures. The performance of our model, assessed by cross-validation R2, demonstrated high accuracy with values of 0.92 for PM2.5, 0.95 for PM10, 0.95 for O3, 0.90 for NO2, 0.79 for SO2, and 0.82 for CO. Notably, there was an improvement in the concentrations of particulate matter, particularly for PM2.5, although PM10 exhibited a rebound in northern regions. The concentrations of SO2 and CO consistently declined across the country over the epidemic\u2019s course (p &lt; 0.001 and p &lt; 0.05, respectively), while O3 concentrations in southern regions experienced a notable increase. Concentrations of air pollutants in the Beijing\u2013Tianjin\u2013Hebei region were effectively controlled and mitigated. The findings of this study provide critical insights into changing trends of air quality during public health emergencies, help guide the development of targeted interventions, and inform policy making aimed at reducing disease burdens associated with air pollution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16071298","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,8]],"date-time":"2024-04-08T03:11:33Z","timestamp":1712545893000},"page":"1298","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Spatiotemporal Patterns of Air Pollutants over the Epidemic Course: A National Study in China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3901-7207","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kun","family":"Qin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhanpeng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0858-4728","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shaoqing","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuchen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK"},{"name":"Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manyao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ge","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuanyuan","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1539-049X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chun","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shujuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0110-3637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"International Institute of Spatial Lifecourse Health (ISLE), Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"Hubei Luojia Laboratory, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15371","article-title":"The Contribution of Outdoor Air Pollution Sources to Premature Mortality on a Global Scale","volume":"525","author":"Lelieveld","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apr.2023.101782","article-title":"Spatio-Temporal Variations and Socio-Economic Drivers of Air Pollution: Evidence from 332 Chinese Prefecture-Level Cities","volume":"14","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Atmos. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(16)30023-8","article-title":"Air Pollution and Health","volume":"2","author":"Landrigan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11274-8","article-title":"Air Pollution and Health","volume":"360","author":"Brunekreef","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3354","article-title":"Future Global Mortality from Changes in Air Pollution Attributable to Climate Change","volume":"7","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04229-0","article-title":"Global Fine-Scale Changes in Ambient NO2 during COVID-19 Lockdowns","volume":"601","author":"Cooper","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2021.107153","article-title":"Air Pollution in an Urban World: A Global View on Density, Cities and Emissions","volume":"189","author":"Dienesch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.160064","article-title":"Trends in Urban Air Pollution over the Last Two Decades: A Global Perspective","volume":"858","author":"Sicard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2023.113514","article-title":"Evaluating TROPOMI and MODIS Performance to Capture the Dynamic of Air Pollution in S\u00e3o Paulo State: A Case Study during the COVID-19 Outbreak","volume":"289","author":"Rudke","year":"2023","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18984","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2006853117","article-title":"COVID-19 Lockdowns Cause Global Air Pollution Declines","volume":"117","author":"Venter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, F., Purvis-Roberts, K.L., and Williams, B. (2020). Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown on Air Pollution in 20 Major Cities around the World. Atmosphere, 11.","DOI":"10.1002\/essoar.10504175.1"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Yang, S., Zou, Y., Su, J., Wu, C., Zhong, B., and Jia, P. (2022). Spatiotemporal Epidemiology of COVID-19 from an Epidemic Course Perspective. Geospat. Health, 17.","DOI":"10.4081\/gh.2022.1023"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-01079-0","article-title":"Are We Ready for a New Era of High-Impact and High-Frequency Epidemics?","volume":"580","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e58","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(22)00142-4","article-title":"Dynamic Zero COVID Policy in the Fight against COVID","volume":"10","author":"Burki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2020.305732","article-title":"Policy Lessons from Early Reactions to the COVID-19 Virus in China","volume":"110","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140879","article-title":"Response of Major Air Pollutants to COVID-19 Lockdowns in China","volume":"743","author":"Pei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2022.106539","article-title":"Spatial Characteristics of Change Trends of Air Pollutants in Chinese Urban Areas during 2016\u20132020: The Impact of Air Pollution Controls and the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"283","author":"Gao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsci.2023.04.009","article-title":"Impact of the Emergency Response to COVID-19 on Air Quality and Its Policy Implications: Evidence from 290 Cities in China","volume":"145","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Policy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.159339","article-title":"Understanding and Revealing the Intrinsic Impacts of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Air Quality and Public Health in North China Using Machine Learning","volume":"857","author":"Lv","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, Q., Wang, J., Xiong, M., and Zhu, L. (2023). Air Quality Index (AQI) Did Not Improve during the COVID-19 Lockdown in Shanghai, China, in 2022, Based on Ground and TROPOMI Observations. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15051295"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People\u2019s Republic of China (2024, April 01). Ambien Air Quality Standards (GB 3095-2012), (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2022.03.036","article-title":"Prospect of China\u2019s Ambient Air Quality Standards","volume":"123","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2021.118684","article-title":"MODIS High-Resolution MAIAC Aerosol Product: Global Validation and Analysis","volume":"264","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.09.027","article-title":"TROPOMI on the ESA Sentinel-5 Precursor: A GMES Mission for Global Observations of the Atmospheric Composition for Climate, Air Quality and Ozone Layer Applications","volume":"120","author":"Veefkind","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.116456","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Mapping and Assessment of Daily Ground NO2 Concentrations in China Using High-Resolution TROPOMI Retrievals","volume":"273","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112573","article-title":"Importance of Satellite Observations for High-Resolution Mapping of near-Surface NO2 by Machine Learning","volume":"264","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10875","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-22-10875-2022","article-title":"Evaluating NOx Emissions and Their Effect on O3 Production in Texas Using TROPOMI NO2 and HCHO","volume":"22","author":"Goldberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 Global Reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2023.119795","article-title":"Evaluation of Four Meteorological Reanalysis Datasets for Satellite-Based PM2.5 Retrieval over China","volume":"305","author":"Zuo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"103284","article-title":"Full-Coverage Spatiotemporal Estimation of Surface Ozone over China Based on a High-Efficiency Deep Learning Model","volume":"118","author":"Mu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1206016","article-title":"Impact of Geocoding Methods on Associations between Long-Term Exposure to Urban Air Pollution and Lung Function","volume":"121","author":"Jacquemin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3273","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-20-3273-2020","article-title":"Improved 1 Km Resolution PM2.5 Estimates across China Using Enhanced Space\u2013Time Extremely Randomized Trees","volume":"20","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112828","article-title":"Geographical and Temporal Encoding for Improving the Estimation of PM2.5 Concentrations in China Using End-to-End Gradient Boosting","volume":"269","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Ke, G., Meng, Q., Finley, T., Wang, T., Chen, W., Ma, W., Ye, Q., and Liu, T.-Y. (2017, January 4\u20139). LightGBM: A Highly Efficient Gradient Boosting Decision Tree. Proceedings of the Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, Long Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nwaa307","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwaa307","article-title":"Robust Prediction of Hourly PM2.5 from Meteorological Data Using LightGBM","volume":"8","author":"Zhong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.154363","article-title":"MERRA-2 PM2. 5 Mass Concentration Reconstruction in China Mainland Based on LightGBM Machine Learning","volume":"827","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"2825","article-title":"Scikit-Learn: Machine Learning in Python","volume":"12","author":"Pedregosa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/s41612-023-00407-1","article-title":"A Synchronized Estimation of Hourly Surface Concentrations of Six Criteria Air Pollutants with GEMS Data","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Clim. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Kohavi, R. (1995, January 20\u201325). A Study of Cross-Validation and Bootstrap for Accuracy Estimation and Model Selection. Proceedings of the IJCAI, Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s11222-009-9153-8","article-title":"Estimation of Prediction Error by Using K-Fold Cross-Validation","volume":"21","author":"Fushiki","year":"2011","journal-title":"Stat. Comput."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Esri (2024, April 01). How Emerging Hot Spot Analysis Works. Available online: https:\/\/pro.arcgis.com\/en\/pro-app\/3.1\/tool-reference\/space-time-pattern-mining\/learnmoreemerging.htm."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00912.x","article-title":"Local Spatial Autocorrelation Statistics: Distributional Issues and an Application","volume":"27","author":"Ord","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"245","article-title":"Nonparametric Tests against Trend","volume":"13","author":"Mann","year":"1945","journal-title":"Econom. J. Econom. Soc."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Kendall, M.G. (1948). Rank Correlation Methods, Griffin."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18195","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-21-18195-2021","article-title":"Why Is the City\u2019s Responsibility for Its Air Pollution Often Underestimated? A Focus on PM2.5","volume":"21","author":"Thunis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3695","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b05134","article-title":"Method for Fusing Observational Data and Chemical Transport Model Simulations to Estimate Spatiotemporally Resolved Ambient Air Pollution","volume":"50","author":"Friberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3343","DOI":"10.1007\/s00477-023-02450-z","article-title":"The Impact of COVID-19 on Economy, Air Pollution and Income: Evidence from China","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1002\/sd.2432","article-title":"Sustainable Policies for Air Pollution Reduction after COVID-19 Pandemic: Lessons Learnt from the Impact of the Different Lockdown Periods on Air Quality","volume":"31","author":"Silva","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13571","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c03818","article-title":"Monitoring Compliance in Pandemic Management with Air Pollution Data: A Lesson from COVID-19","volume":"55","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, L., Chen, B., Huang, Y., Song, Z., and Yang, T. (2021). Analysis on the Characteristics of Air Pollution in China during the COVID-19 Outbreak. Atmosphere, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12020205"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044009","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab6614","article-title":"Obesogenic Environmental Factors of Adult Obesity in China: A Nationally Representative Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155940","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155940","article-title":"Ethnic Disparities in the Association between Ambient Air Pollution and Risk for Cardiometabolic Abnormalities in China","volume":"838","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Openshaw, S. (1984). Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography, Geo Books."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2019.102243","article-title":"Spatial Lifecourse Epidemiology Reporting Standards (ISLE-ReSt) Statement","volume":"61","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyw365","article-title":"Using Remote Sensing Technology to Measure Environmental Determinants of Non-Communicable Diseases","volume":"46","author":"Jia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1007\/s44212-022-00021-1","article-title":"A Systematic Review of the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP) in Community Food Environmental Research","volume":"1","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Urban Inform."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-040218-043807","article-title":"Earth Observation: Investigating Noncommunicable Diseases from Space","volume":"40","author":"Jia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-051920-093141","article-title":"Innovations in Public Health Surveillance for Emerging Infections","volume":"44","author":"Jia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Public Health"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/7\/1298\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:24:22Z","timestamp":1760106262000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/7\/1298"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,7]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16071298"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16071298","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,7]]}}}