{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T14:46:23Z","timestamp":1775745983724,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]],"date-time":"2024-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1712707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"resources of the Association Transverzala Belgrade","award":["112043118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["112043118"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The research in this paper is related to the accuracy of the tilt compensation function of the GNSS\/IMU receivers, which were examined in an open sky environment. The purpose of the paper is to point out to geodesists the conditions and limitations of using GNSS\/IMU technology in precise measurements to not jeopardize the coordinate\u2019s accuracy. The environment in which the measurement is made affects the quality of the GNSS signal and can limit the visibility of the satellite, leading to larger errors in the measurement. In this experiment, the current performance of the GNSS\/IMU receivers was checked. Seven GNSS\/IMU receivers were used for the realization of the experiment. For six receivers the compensation angle was \u03b1 = 30\u00b0, while for one receiver, the compensation angle was \u03b1 = 45\u00b0. The standard uncertainty of GNSS coordinates of the antenna phase center has values less than 9 mm. The standard uncertainty of the IMU component has values less than 31 mm. The measurement uncertainty of the position of the used GNSS receivers is in the range of 18.1 mm to 31.7 mm. The limit values for the differences along the coordinate axes x and y were determined, and their values are from 26 mm to 44 mm. In the conducted experiment, it was confirmed that three GNSS\/IMU receivers have a \u201cSatisfactory\u201d result. The results show that GNSS\/IMU measurements with a slope greater than 30\u00b0 significantly affect the accuracy and reliability of GNSS\/IMU technology. A slope greater than 45\u00b0 has a deviation along the coordinate axes of 121.3 mm. The conducted research is particularly important for geodetic works that require high positioning performance. The testing method of the GNSS\/IMU receiver presented in this paper can help its users to make correct conclusions regarding the coordinate accuracy of the measured point of interest.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16081327","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]],"date-time":"2024-04-10T06:07:46Z","timestamp":1712729266000},"page":"1327","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Practical Limitations of Using the Tilt Compensation Function of the GNSS\/IMU Receiver"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0275-1361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jelena","family":"Gu\u010devi\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, University of Novi Sad, 24000 Subotica, Serbia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1578-7913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sini\u0161a","family":"Del\u010dev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering Subotica, University of Novi Sad, 24000 Subotica, Serbia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5439-6460","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivera","family":"Vasovi\u0107 \u0160im\u0161i\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department School of Civil Engineering and Geodesy of Applied Studies, Academy of Technical and Art Applied Studies Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., and Wasle, E. (2008). GNSS\u2014Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo & More, Springer."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Langley, R.B., and The Magnetic Compass and GPS (2023, November 05). GPS World. Available online: http:\/\/gauss.gge.unb.ca\/papers.pdf\/gpsworld.september03.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Luo, X., Schaufler, S., and Richter, B. (2018). Leica GS18 T World\u2019s Fastest GNSS RTK Rover, Leica Geosystems AG."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, H. (2021, January 20\u201324). High-precision RTK Positioning with Tilt, Compensation: Data Fusion Algorithm. Proceedings of the 34th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2021), St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2021.17946"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-020-01032-8","article-title":"Rapid and accurate initial alignment of the low-cost MEMS IMU chip dedicated for tilted RTK receiver","volume":"24","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Luo, X., Schaufler, S., Carrera, M., and Celebi, I. (2018, January 6\u201311). High-precision RTK positioning with calibration-free tilt compensation. Proceedings of the FIG Congress 2018, Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Muhammad, S. (2014). GNSS\/INS Integration in Urban Areas, Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Department of Electronics and Telecommunications."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"22","article-title":"How Galileo benefits high-precision RTK\u2014What to expect with the current constellation","volume":"28","author":"Luo","year":"2017","journal-title":"GPS World"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"NovAtel Customer Service (2024, March 21). GPS Position Accuracy Measures. Available online: http:\/\/www.gisresources.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/03\/gps_book.pdf."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s43020-020-0009-x","article-title":"Multi-constellation GNSS precise point positioning with multi-frequency raw observations and dual-frequency observations of ionospheric-free linear combination","volume":"1","author":"An","year":"2020","journal-title":"Satell. Navig."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Urke, T. (2021). Accuracy of Tilt-Compensated GNSS-Sensors Using Network-RTK, Noregs Teknisk-Naturvitskaplege Universitet. Fakultet for Ingeni\u00f8rvitenskap Institutt for Vareproduksjon og Byggteknikk."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Calvo, M., Luo, X., Aponte, J.A., and Richter, B. (2022, January 11\u201315). Improved high-precision RTK positioning through multipath reduction and interference mitigation. Proceedings of the FIG Congress. Volunteering for the Future\u2014Geospatial Excellence for a Better Living, Warsaw, Poland."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.29359\/BJHPA.11.2.08","article-title":"Selected aspects of testing the positioning accuracy of GNSS receivers used in sports and recreation by dynamic measurements Balt","volume":"11","author":"Specht","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Health Phys. Act."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, N., and Freestone, J. (2016, January 12\u201316). High-performance GNSS antennas with phase-reversal quadrature feeding network and parasitic circular array. Proceedings of the ION GNSS+ 2016, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2016.14833"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.15292\/geodetski-vestnik.2023.02.235-248","article-title":"Ocena delovanja eno in dvofrekven\u010dnih nizkocenovnih spreje-mnikov GNSS v stati\u010dnem relativnem na\u010dinu|Performance evaluation of single and double-frequency low-cost GNSS receivers in static relative mode","volume":"67","author":"Nayak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geod. Vestn."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nrjag.2013.11.002","article-title":"Influence of GPS antenna phase center variation on precise positioning","volume":"2","year":"2013","journal-title":"NRIAG J. Astron. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Rocken, C., Meertens, C., Stephens, B., Braun, J., VanHove, T., Perry, S., Ruud, O., McCallum, M., Richardson, J., and UNAVCO Academic Research Infrastructure (ARI) Receiver and Antenna Test Report (2023, December 05). UNAVCO Boulder Facility International Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.unavco.org\/projects\/project-support\/development-testing\/publications\/ari_test.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, R., Hu, Z., Zhao, Q., Cai, H., Liu, X., Liu, C., Wang, G., Kan, H., and Chen, L. (2022). Consistency Analysis of the GNSS Antenna Phase Center Correction Models. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14030540"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Heister, H. (2008, January 14\u201319). The new ISO standard 17123-8 for checking GNSS field measuring systems. Proceedings of the FIG Working Week, Stockholm, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2015). Optics and Optical Instruments\u2014Field Procedures for Testing Geodetic and Surveying Instruments, Part 8: GNSS Field Meas-urement Systems in Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) (Standard No. ISO 17123-8:2015)."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00012780","article-title":"GPS Antenna Calibration at the National Geodetic Survey","volume":"3","author":"Mader","year":"1999","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.15292\/geodetski-vestnik.2010.04.607-626","article-title":"Analiza preizkusa instrumentarija gnss-rtk po navodilih standarda iso 17123-8.|Analysis of gnss-rtk instruments testing on the iso 17123-8 instructions","volume":"54","author":"Mencin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geod. Vestn."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Ignjatovi\u0107 Stupar, D., and Ogrizovi\u0107, V. (2018, January 20). Using single frequency receivers for future cubesat GPS-RO missions. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference, Subotica, Serbia."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Li, F., Liu, L., Huang, L., Zhou, L., and He, H. (2022). A CalibratedGPT3 (CGPT3) Model for the Site-Specific Zenith Hydrostatic Delay Estimation in the Chinese Mainland and Its Surrounding Areas. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14246357"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2023, December 07). Trimble Announces Calibration-Free Tilt Compensation for Their Flagship GNSS Rover. Available online: https:\/\/www.geospatialworld.net\/blogs\/trimble-announces-calibration-free-tilt-compensation-for-their-flagship-gnss-rover\/."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"1230","article-title":"Impact of Vial Bubble on the Accuracy of Positions in the GNSS-RTK Mode","volume":"29","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tech. Gaz."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2023, November 02). Available online: http:\/\/www.registar.ats.rs\/predmet\/1323\/."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2023, November 10). Pravilnik o Primeni Tehnologije Globalnog Navigacionog Satelitskog Sistema u Oblastima Dr\u017eavnog Premera i Katastra, \u201cSlu\u017ebeni Glasnik RS\u201d, br. 72\/2017. Available online: http:\/\/demo.paragraf.rs\/demo\/combined\/Old\/t\/t2017_07\/t07_0328.htm."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2024, March 25). AGROS, Available online: https:\/\/agros.rgz.gov.rs\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2024, March 25). Vekom Net. Available online: https:\/\/vekom.com\/o-vekomnet-mrezi\/."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2024, March 25). GentooARS. Available online: http:\/\/www.geosolutions.co.rs\/resenjeGeotaurNet.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu\u010devi\u0107, J., Vasovi\u0107 \u0160im\u0161i\u0107, O., Del\u010dev, S., and Kuburi\u0107, M. (2022). Testing of Homogeneity of Coordinates of Various Permanent GNSS Reference Stations Networks of the Republic of Serbia According to the Common Requirements for Proving Competence. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22207867"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/8\/1327\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:25:37Z","timestamp":1760106337000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/8\/1327"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16081327"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16081327","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,10]]}}}