{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T02:05:38Z","timestamp":1774922738428,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,25]],"date-time":"2024-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714003200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Land subsidence (LS) is a global phenomenon that has affected several urban centres around the world such as Jakarta (Indonesia), Mexico City (Mexico), Xi\u2019an (China), and Iron County (US). It has mainly been attributed to anthropogenic activities such as groundwater exploitation, especially in unconsolidated aquifer systems rich in highly compressible clay and silt. The platy clay minerals rearrange into horizontal stacks after dewatering, leading to a volume change due to overburden. In this study, land subsidence is investigated in the Quetta and Mastung districts, Balochistan, Pakistan, by employing Small Baseline Subset (SBAS) Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), and groundwater level (GWL) variations. This study represents the first attempt in Pakistan to measure the long-term land subsidence by fusing GNSS and InSAR data for improved validity. InSAR data from the Sentinel-1 satellite in the Ascending (195 scenes) and Descending (183 scenes) tracks were used to analyse LS from December 2015 to December 2022. High-accuracy Trimble NetRS GNSS receivers were used in five locations from October 2006 to December 2022. An average subsidence ranging from 3.2 cm\/y to 16 cm\/y was recorded in the valley mainly due to the GWL decline and clay-rich sediments, which are prone to compaction due to dewatering. An accumulative LS of 2 m was recorded by the permanent GNSS station in central Quetta from October 2008 to January 2023 (14.2 years). An acceleration in the subsidence from 12 cm\/y to 16.6 cm\/y after 2016 was recorded by the continuous GNSS. Additionally, the InSAR and GNSS values were compared for validation, resulting in a good correlation between both techniques. A GWL decline ranging from 1.7 m to 6 m was recorded by the piezometers in Quetta during the period 1987\u20132022. Large- and small-scale fissures were observed in the study area during the surveys. These fissures are responsible for damage to the city\u2019s infrastructure and aquifer contamination. The subsidence profile also agrees with the subsurface lithology. Our assessment concludes that Quetta may be the fastest-sinking metropolitan city in Pakistan. The overexploitation of groundwater and the population explosion may be the main contributing factors for the land subsidence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16091521","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,25]],"date-time":"2024-04-25T08:08:32Z","timestamp":1714032512000},"page":"1521","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["GNSS and Sentinel-1 InSAR Integrated Long-Term Subsidence Monitoring in Quetta and Mastung Districts, Balochistan, Pakistan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7985-0969","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Najeebullah","family":"Kakar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geological Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"Department of Geology, University of Balochistan, Quetta 08770, Pakistan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5730-9602","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaoying","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geological Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Western China\u2019s Mineral Resource and Geological Engineering, Ministry of Education, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}]},{"given":"Guangrong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geological Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}]},{"given":"Haolin","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geological Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb8549","article-title":"Mapping the Global Threat of Land Subsidence","volume":"371","author":"Ezquerro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, L., Guo, J., Hu, J., Li, J., Xu, Y., Pan, Y., and Shi, M. (2017). Wuhan Surface Subsidence Analysis in 2015\u20132016 Based on Sentinel-1A Data by SBAS-InSAR. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9100982"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2590","article-title":"The Global Volume and Distribution of Modern Groundwater","volume":"9","author":"Gleeson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qureshi, A. (2020). Groundwater Governance in Pakistan: From Colossal Development to Neglected Management. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12113017"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"60","article-title":"National Water Policy of Pakistan: A Critical Analysis","volume":"14","author":"Sumra","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iqbal, J., Su, C., Rashid, A., Yang, N., Baloch, M.Y.J., Talpur, S.A., Ullah, Z., Rahman, G., Rahman, N.U., and Earjh, E. (2021). Hydrogeochemical Assessment of Groundwater and Suitability Analysis for Domestic and Agricultural Utility in Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13243589"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Oldham, R.D. (1892). Records of Geological Survey of India, Forgotten Book."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(1988). WAPDA Groundwater Level during 1967\u20131988 in Quetta Valley. Hydrogeology Project, Quetta, Basic Data Release No. 1, Kalat Publishers."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.26833\/ijeg.581584","article-title":"Interpreting Deformation Results of Geodetic Network Points Using the Strain Models Based on Different Estimation Methods","volume":"5","author":"Konak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"12","article-title":"Comparison of GPS Satellite Coordinates Computed from Broadcast and IGS Final Ephemerides","volume":"3","author":"Ozyuksel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-019-8009-8","article-title":"Validating InSAR-SBAS Results by Means of Different GNSS Analysis Techniques in Medium- and High-Grade Deformation Areas","volume":"192","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9183","DOI":"10.1029\/JB094iB07p09183","article-title":"Mapping Small Elevation Changes over Large Areas: Differential Radar Interferometry","volume":"94","author":"Gabriel","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1109\/5.838084","article-title":"Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry","volume":"88","author":"Rosen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"328","article-title":"Subsidence Mapping at Regional Scale Using Persistent Scatters Interferometry (PSI): The Case of Tuscany Region (Italy)","volume":"52","author":"Rosi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1130\/0091-7613(1999)027<0483:STUADO>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Sensing the Ups and Downs of Las Vegas: InSAR Reveals Structural Control of Land Subsidence and Aquifer-System Deformation","volume":"27","author":"Amelung","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1038\/35090558","article-title":"Tectonic Contraction across Los Angeles after Removal of Groundwater Pumping Effects","volume":"412","author":"Bawden","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Lauknes, T.R. (2010). Rockslide Mapping in Norway by Means of Interferometric SAR Time Series Analysis. [Ph.D. Thesis, The Arctic University of Norway]."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(2002)114<0012:TLPOEI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Lowest Place on Earth Is Subsiding\u2014An InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) Perspective","volume":"114","author":"Baer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2573","DOI":"10.1029\/98WR01285","article-title":"Detection of Aquifer System Compaction and Land Subsidence Using Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar, Antelope Valley, Mojave Desert, California","volume":"34","author":"Galloway","year":"1998","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"SBH 5-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2001WR001252","article-title":"Inverse Modeling of Interbed Storage Parameters Using Land Subsidence Observations, Antelope Valley, California","volume":"39","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2003","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A New Algorithm for Surface Deformation Monitoring Based on Small Baseline Differential SAR Interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent Scatterers in SAR Interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.828196","article-title":"A Small Baseline Approach for Investigating Deformation on Full Resolution Differential SAR Interferograms","volume":"42","author":"Lanari","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mexico City Subsidence Observed with Persistent Scatterer InSAR","volume":"13","author":"Osmanoglu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"291","article-title":"Time-Series Analysis of Subsidence in Nanning, China, Based on Sentinel-1A Data by the SBAS InSAR Method","volume":"88","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"PFG J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Geoinf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cigna, F., Esquivel, R., and Tapete, D. (2021). Accuracy of Sentinel-1 PSI and SBAS InSAR Displacement Velocities against GNSS and Geodetic Leveling Monitoring Data. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13234800"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanssen, R. (2001). Radar Interferometry Data Interpretation and Error Analysis, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-47633-9"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2533441","article-title":"Mitigating Ionospheric Artifacts in Coseismic Interferogram Based on Offset Field Derived from ALOS-PALSAR Data","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2017.01.011","article-title":"Quantifying Groundwater Exploitation Induced Subsidence in the Rafsanjan Plain, Southeastern Iran, Using InSAR Time-Series and in Situ Measurements","volume":"218","author":"Motagh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2990-y","article-title":"Time-Series Analysis of Subsidence Associated with Rapid Urbanization in Shanghai, China Measured with SBAS InSAR Method","volume":"72","author":"Dong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.09.008","article-title":"Land Subsidence and Ground Fissures in Xi\u2019an, China 2005\u20132012 Revealed by Multi-Band InSAR Time-Series Analysis","volume":"155","author":"Qu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1768","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JF003117","article-title":"InSAR Measurements of Compaction and Subsidence in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, Bangladesh","volume":"119","author":"Higgins","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"102","article-title":"Land Subsidence in Major Cities of Central Mexico: Interpreting InSAR-Derived Land Subsidence Mapping with Hydrogeological Data","volume":"47","author":"Castellazzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.08.038","article-title":"Land Subsidence in Central Mexico Detected by ALOS InSAR Time-Series","volume":"140","author":"Chaussard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.10.015","article-title":"Sinking Cities in Indonesia: ALOS PALSAR Detects Rapid Subsidence due to Groundwater and Gas Extraction","volume":"128","author":"Chaussard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.03.008","article-title":"Subsidence Induced by Urbanisation in the City of Rome Detected by Advanced InSAR Technique and Geotechnical Investigations","volume":"112","author":"Stramondo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2719","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2328-9","article-title":"Land Subsidence and Declining Water Resources in Quetta Valley, Pakistan","volume":"70","author":"Khan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"10","article-title":"Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Exploitation in Quetta Valley, Pakistan","volume":"7","author":"Kakar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Econ. Environ. Geol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9572","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2019.1633704","article-title":"Detection of Land Subsidence and Its Relationship with Land Cover Types Using ESA Sentinel Satellite Data: A Case Study of Quetta Valley, Pakistan","volume":"40","author":"Ahmad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s40995-017-0235-8","article-title":"Observed Long-Term Climatic Variability and Its Impacts on the Ground Water Level of Quetta Alluvial","volume":"42","author":"Durrani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012043","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/414\/1\/012043","article-title":"Historical and Future Climatological Drought Projections over Quetta Valley, Balochistan, Pakistan","volume":"414","author":"Durrani","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.3126\/ije.v10i1.38401","article-title":"Daily Climate Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation over Quetta Valley, Pakistan during 1961\u20132019","volume":"10","author":"Durrani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Asian Development Bank (2000). Quetta Water Supply and Environmental Improvement Project, Asian Development Bank."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2024, March 20). Home|Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/www.pbs.gov.pk\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Hunting, S.C. (1961). Hunting Survey Corporation. Reconnaissance Geology of Part of West Pakistan, Balochistan, a Colombo Plan Cooperative Project, Photographic survey corporation limited."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"97","article-title":"Water Supply of Quetta Basin, Balochistan, Pakistan","volume":"20","author":"Kazmi","year":"1970","journal-title":"Geol. Surv. Pak. Rec."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Kazmi, S. (1973). Geohydrology of Quetta Valley, Hydrogeology Directorate, Reclamation Division, Water and Power Development Authority."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Kazmi, A. (1955). Geology of Ziarat-Kach-Zardalu Area of Balochistan. [DIC Thesis, Imperial College London]. Volume 157."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Kazmi, A.H., and Hamza, A. (1979). The Bibai and Gogai Nappes in the Kach-Ziarat Area of Northeastern Baluchistan, Geodynamics of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.8114","article-title":"A Remote Sensing Contribution to Hydrologic Modelling in Arid and Inaccessible Watersheds, Pishin Lora Basin, Pakistan","volume":"26","author":"Sagintayev","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1785\/0220190148","article-title":"The 1892 Chaman, Pakistan, Earthquake","volume":"90","author":"Bilham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1029\/2008TC002265","article-title":"Fold and Thrust Partitioning in a Contracting Fold Belt: Insights from the 1931 Mach Earthquake in Baluchistan","volume":"28","author":"Szeliga","year":"2009","journal-title":"Tectonics"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.2478\/s11600-013-0171-8","article-title":"Determination of Aquifer Geometry through Geophysical Methods: A Case Study from Quetta Valley, Pakistan","volume":"62","author":"Alam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Geophys."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J., Khan, S., Ghulam, A., Crupa, W., Abir, I., Khan, A., Kakar, D., Kasi, A., and Kakar, N. (2016). Study of Subsidence and Earthquake Swarms in the Western Pakistan. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8110956"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2024, March 20). ASF Data Search. Available online: https:\/\/search.asf.alaska.edu\/#\/."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2352","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.873853","article-title":"TOPSAR: Terrain Observation by Progressive Scans","volume":"44","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2016.09.246","article-title":"Sentinel-1 Support in the GAMMA Software","volume":"100","author":"Werner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2020). GipsyX\/RTGx, a New Tool Set for Space Geodetic Operations and Research. Adv. Space Res., 66, 469\u2013489.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2020.04.015"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2020). Characterisation and Mapping of Land Subsidence Based on Geodetic Observations in Lagos, Nigeria. Geod. Geodyn., 11, 151\u2013162.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geog.2019.12.006"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.5004\/dwt.2021.27068","article-title":"Evaluating Urbanization Impact on Stressed Aquifer of Quetta Valley, Pakistan","volume":"222","author":"Dawood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Desalination Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1","article-title":"Decline of Static Water Level in Quetta Sub-Basin, Balochistan, Pakistan","volume":"3","author":"Ullah","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00814888","article-title":"Karez Irrigation in Pakistan","volume":"37","author":"Khan","year":"1995","journal-title":"GeoJournal"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(2011). Planning & Monitoring Wing Water Resources PD&M Directorate Irrigation Department Quetta \u201cQuarterly Report on Groundwater Monitoring of Quetta Sub-Basin\u201d. \u201cIrrigation Quetta\u201d, Kalat Publishers."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, M., Zhao, C., Zhang, Q., Lu, Z., and Li, Z. (2019). Research on Spatiotemporal Land Deformation (2012\u20132018) over Xi\u2019an, China, with Multi-Sensor SAR Datasets. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11060664"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.5194\/piahs-372-69-2015","article-title":"Modeling of Earth Fissures Caused by Land Subsidence due to Groundwater Withdrawal","volume":"372","author":"Panda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. IAHS"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Knudsen, T., Inkenbrandt, P., Lund, W., Lowe, M., and Bowman, S. (2014). Investigation of Land Subsidence and Earth Fissures in Cedar Valley, Iron County, Utah, Natural Resources Map & Bookstore; North Temple."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, W., Chen, G., Meng, X., Jiang, W., Chong, Y., Zhang, Y., Dong, Y., and Zhang, M. (2020). Spatial-Temporal Evolution of Land Subsidence and Rebound over Xi\u2019an in Western China Revealed by SBAS-InSAR Analysis. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12223756"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2020.04.039","article-title":"Ground Deformation and Fissure Activity of the Yuncheng Basin (China) Revealed by Multiband Time Series InSAR","volume":"66","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1126\/science.add1263","article-title":"Shrinking Aquifers and Land Subsidence in Iran","volume":"376","author":"Negahdary","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8610","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70708610","article-title":"Land Subsidence, Ground Fissures and Buried Faults: InSAR Monitoring of Ciudad Guzm\u00e1n (Jalisco, Mexico)","volume":"7","author":"Brunori","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Kahlown, M.A., Tahir, M.A., and Hifza, R. (2007). Fifth Monitoring Report (2005\u20132006) (No. 133\u20132007), National Water Quality Monitoring Programme. [WWW Document], Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR)."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e13872","article-title":"Amar-Ul-Haque Drinking Water Quality Monitoring, Assessment and Management in Pakistan: A Review","volume":"9","author":"Perveen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Boodt, M.F., Hayes, M.H.B., Herbillon, A., De Strooper, E.B.A., and Tuck, J.J. (1990). Soil Colloids and Their Associations in Aggregates, Springer US.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-2611-1"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4449","DOI":"10.1029\/2017WR022250","article-title":"Sustained Groundwater Loss in California\u2019s Central Valley Exacerbated by Intense Drought Periods","volume":"54","author":"Ojha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"809","article-title":"Mitigating Land Subsidence in the Coachella Valley, California, USA: An Emerging Success Story","volume":"382","author":"Sneed","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Int. Assoc. Hydrol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galloway, D.L., Jones, D.R., and Ingebritsen, S.E. (1999). Land Subsidence in the United States, U.S. Geological Survey Circular.","DOI":"10.3133\/cir1182"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Leake, S.A. (2023, August 19). Land Subsidence From Ground Water Pumping. Available online: http:\/\/www.savethesantacruzaquifer.info\/land%20subsidence.htm."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2024, March 14). The Incredible Sinking Quetta. Available online: http:\/\/www.thefridaytimes.com\/2018\/02\/23\/the-incredible-sinking-quetta\/."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/9\/1521\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:33:59Z","timestamp":1760106839000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/9\/1521"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,25]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16091521"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16091521","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,25]]}}}