{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T02:16:32Z","timestamp":1769048192834,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,27]],"date-time":"2024-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Knowledge Innovation Program of Wuhan\u2014Basic Research","award":["2022010801010431"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022010801010431"]}]},{"name":"Knowledge Innovation Program of Wuhan\u2014Basic Research","award":["2023NGCM08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023NGCM08"]}]},{"name":"Open Foundation of the Key Laboratory of National Geographic Census and Monitoring, Ministry of Natural Resources","award":["2022010801010431"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022010801010431"]}]},{"name":"Open Foundation of the Key Laboratory of National Geographic Census and Monitoring, Ministry of Natural Resources","award":["2023NGCM08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023NGCM08"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-Dimensional Ground Penetrating Radar (3D GPR) detects subsurface targets non-destructively, rapidly, and continuously. The complex environment around urban roads affects the positioning accuracy of 3D GPR. The positioning accuracy directly affects the data quality, as inaccurate positioning can lead to distortion and misalignment of 3D GPR data. This paper proposed a multi-level robust positioning method to improve the positioning accuracy of 3D GPR in dense urban areas in order to obtain more accurate underground data. In environments with good GNSS signals, fast and high-precision positioning can be achieved based on GNSS data using differential GNSS technology; in scenes with weak GNSS signals, high-precision positioning of subsurface data can be achieved by using GNSS and IMU as well as using GNSS\/INS tightly coupled solution technology; in scenes with no GNSS signals, SLAM technology is used for positioning based on INS data and 3D point cloud data. In summary, this method ensures a positioning accuracy of 3D GPR better than 10 cm and high-quality 3D images of underground urban roads in any environment. This provides data support for urban road underground structure surveys and has broad application prospects in underground disease detection and prevention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16091559","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]],"date-time":"2024-04-29T04:26:16Z","timestamp":1714364776000},"page":"1559","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["A Multi-Level Robust Positioning Method for Three-Dimensional Ground Penetrating Radar (3D GPR) Road Underground Imaging in Dense Urban Areas"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4325-3481","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ju","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan City Polytechnic, Wuhan 430072, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of National Geographic Census and Monitoring, Ministry of Natural Resources, Wuhan 430072, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0866-6678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qingwu","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Yemei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering and Architecture, Wuhan City Polytechnic, Wuhan 430072, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1581-634X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pengcheng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8505-9789","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuzhe","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Remote Sensing and Information Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"K12","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1852780","article-title":"Full-resolution 3D GPR imaging","volume":"70","author":"Grasmueck","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2010.05.019","article-title":"3D GPR in forensics: Finding a clandestine grave in a mountainous environment","volume":"204","author":"Novo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. 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