{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T21:54:59Z","timestamp":1776722099417,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]],"date-time":"2024-05-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715558400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["357908"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["357908"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["334002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["334002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["348644"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["348644"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["331708"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["331708"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["VN\/3482\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VN\/3482\/2021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["336382"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["336382"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10107044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10107044"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"academy-funded research infrastructure grant \u201cMeasuring Spatiotemporal Changes in Forest Ecosystem\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["357908"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["357908"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"academy-funded research infrastructure grant \u201cMeasuring Spatiotemporal Changes in Forest Ecosystem\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["334002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["334002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"academy-funded research infrastructure grant \u201cMeasuring Spatiotemporal Changes in Forest Ecosystem\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["348644"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["348644"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"academy-funded research infrastructure grant \u201cMeasuring Spatiotemporal Changes in Forest Ecosystem\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["331708"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["331708"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"academy-funded research infrastructure grant \u201cMeasuring Spatiotemporal Changes in Forest Ecosystem\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["VN\/3482\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VN\/3482\/2021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"academy-funded research infrastructure grant \u201cMeasuring Spatiotemporal Changes in Forest Ecosystem\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["336382"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["336382"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"academy-funded research infrastructure grant \u201cMeasuring Spatiotemporal Changes in Forest Ecosystem\u201d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10107044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10107044"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe FEROX project","award":["357908"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["357908"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe FEROX project","award":["334002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["334002"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe FEROX project","award":["348644"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["348644"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe FEROX project","award":["331708"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["331708"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe FEROX project","award":["VN\/3482\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VN\/3482\/2021"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe FEROX project","award":["336382"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["336382"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2019s Horizon Europe FEROX project","award":["10107044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10107044"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The use of mobile laser scanning for mapping forests has scarcely been studied in difficult forest conditions. In this paper, we compare the accuracy of retrieving tree attributes, particularly diameter at breast height (DBH), stem curve, stem volume, and tree height, using six different laser scanning systems in a managed natural boreal forest. These compared systems operated both under the forest canopy on handheld and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platforms and above the canopy from a helicopter. The complexity of the studied forest sites ranged from easy to difficult, and thus, this is the first study to compare the performance of several laser scanning systems for the direct measurement of stem curve in difficult forest conditions. To automatically detect tree stems and to calculate their attributes, we utilized our previously developed algorithm integrated with a novel bias compensation method to reduce the overestimation of stem diameter arising from finite laser beam divergence. The bias compensation method reduced the absolute value of the diameter bias by 55\u201399%. The most accurate laser scanning systems were equipped with a Velodyne VLP-16 sensor, which has a relatively low beam divergence, on a handheld or UAV platform. In easy plots, these systems found a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of below 10% for DBH and stem curve estimates and approximately 10% for stem volume. With the handheld system in difficult plots, the DBH and stem curve estimates had an RMSE under 10%, and the stem volume RMSE was below 20%. Even though bias compensation reduced the difference in bias and RMSE between laser scanners with high and low beam divergence, the RMSE remained higher for systems with a high beam divergence. The airborne laser scanner operating above the forest canopy provided tree attribute estimates close to the accuracy of the under-canopy laser scanners, but with a significantly lower completeness rate for stem detection, especially in difficult forest conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16101721","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]],"date-time":"2024-05-13T08:33:03Z","timestamp":1715589183000},"page":"1721","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Benchmarking Under- and Above-Canopy Laser Scanning Solutions for Deriving Stem Curve and Volume in Easy and Difficult Boreal Forest Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0259-6894","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jesse","family":"Muhojoki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7512-1201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniella","family":"Tavi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1979-9217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric","family":"Hyypp\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3119-3493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matti","family":"Lehtom\u00e4ki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5334-5537","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tam\u00e1s","family":"Faitli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4796-3942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Harri","family":"Kaartinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3841-6533","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antero","family":"Kukko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5486-4582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Teemu","family":"Hakala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5360-4017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juha","family":"Hyypp\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, The National Land Survey of Finland, Vuorimiehentie 5, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kettunen, M., Vihervaara, P., Kinnunen, S., D\u2019Amato, D., Badura, T., Argimon, M., and Ten Brink, P. (2012). Socio-Economic Importance of Ecosystem Services in the Nordic Countries, Nordic Council of Ministers.","DOI":"10.6027\/TN2012-559"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luoma, V., Saarinen, N., Wulder, M.A., White, J.C., Vastaranta, M., Holopainen, M., and Hyypp\u00e4, J. (2017). Assessing precision in conventional field measurements of individual tree attributes. Forests, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/f8020038"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.11.008","article-title":"Is field-measured tree height as reliable as believed\u2014A comparison study of tree height estimates from field measurement, airborne laser scanning and terrestrial laser scanning in a boreal forest","volume":"147","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"51","article-title":"Accurately measuring the height of (real) forest trees","volume":"112","author":"Bragg","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. For."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"50","article-title":"Tree detection and diameter estimations by analysis of forest terrestrial laserscanner point clouds","volume":"36","author":"Bienert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1739","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2253783","article-title":"Automated stem curve measurement using terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"52","author":"Liang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2020.01.018","article-title":"Accurate derivation of stem curve and volume using backpack mobile laser scanning","volume":"161","author":"Kukko","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyypp\u00e4, E., Yu, X., Kaartinen, H., Hakala, T., Kukko, A., Vastaranta, M., and Hyypp\u00e4, J. (2020). Comparison of backpack, handheld, under-canopy UAV, and above-canopy UAV laser scanning for field reference data collection in boreal forests. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12203327"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.srs.2022.100050","article-title":"Direct and automatic measurements of stem curve and volume using a high-resolution airborne laser scanning system","volume":"5","author":"Kukko","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.06.021","article-title":"International benchmarking of terrestrial laser scanning approaches for forest inventories","volume":"144","author":"Liang","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2022.03.004","article-title":"Individual tree detection and estimation of stem attributes with mobile laser scanning along boreal forest roads","volume":"187","author":"Olofsson","year":"2022","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Laasasenaho, J. (1982). Taper Curve and Volume Functions for Pine, Spruce and Birch, Mets\u00e4ntutkimuslaitos."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bauwens, S., Bartholomeus, H., Calders, K., and Lejeune, P. (2016). Forest Inventory with Terrestrial LiDAR: A Comparison of Static and Hand-Held Mobile Laser Scanning. Forests, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/f7060127"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brede, B., Lau, A., Bartholomeus, H., and Kooistra, L. (2017). Comparing RIEGL RiCOPTER UAV LiDAR derived canopy height and DBH with terrestrial LiDAR. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102371"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabo, C., Del Pozo, S., Rodr\u00edguez-Gonz\u00e1lvez, P., Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez, C., and Gonz\u00e1lez-Aguilera, D. (2018). Comparing terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and wearable laser scanning (WLS) for individual tree modeling at plot level. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10040540"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gollob, C., Ritter, T., and Nothdurft, A. (2020). Forest inventory with long range and high-speed personal laser scanning (PLS) and simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) technology. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12091509"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oveland, I., Hauglin, M., Giannetti, F., Schipper Kj\u00f8rsvik, N., and Gobakken, T. (2018). Comparing three different ground based laser scanning methods for tree stem detection. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10040538"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s40663-019-0173-3","article-title":"Forest in situ observations using unmanned aerial vehicle as an alternative of terrestrial measurements","volume":"6","author":"Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"For. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"211","article-title":"The handheld mobile laser scanners as a tool for accurate positioning under forest canopy","volume":"43","author":"Tucek","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS\u2014Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Tavi, D. (2023). Comparison of Under-Canopy Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, Airborne, and Ground-Based Mobile Laser Scanning for Forest Field Reference Measurements. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Aalto University]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qian, C., Liu, H., Tang, J., Chen, Y., Kaartinen, H., Kukko, A., Zhu, L., Liang, X., Chen, L., and Hyypp\u00e4, J. (2017). An Integrated GNSS\/INS\/LiDAR-SLAM Positioning Method for Highly Accurate Forest Stem Mapping. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010003"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16710","DOI":"10.3390\/s150716710","article-title":"LiDAR Scan Matching Aided Inertial Navigation System in GNSS-Denied Environments","volume":"15","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Y., Yang, T., Wang, X., Chen, X., Pang, S., Hu, J., Wang, A., Chen, L., and Shen, Z. (2022). Applying a Portable Backpack Lidar to Measure and Locate Trees in a Nature Forest Plot: Accuracy and Error Analyses. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14081806"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.09.006","article-title":"Graph SLAM correction for single scanner MLS forest data under boreal forest canopy","volume":"132","author":"Kukko","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2022.104240","article-title":"Towards real-time forest inventory using handheld LiDAR","volume":"157","author":"Proudman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLVIII-1-W1-2023-145-2023","article-title":"Real-time lidar-inertial positioning and mapping for forestry automation","volume":"48","author":"Faitli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1","article-title":"Applicability of personal laser scanning in forestry inventory","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70101095","article-title":"Assessing handheld mobile laser scanners for forest surveys","volume":"7","author":"Ryding","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2020.03.021","article-title":"Under-canopy UAV laser scanning for accurate forest field measurements","volume":"164","author":"Hakala","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyypp\u00e4, J., Yu, X., Hakala, T., Kaartinen, H., Kukko, A., Hyyti, H., Muhojoki, J., and Hyypp\u00e4, E. (2021). Under-Canopy UAV Laser Scanning Providing Canopy Height and Stem Volume Accurately. Forests, 12.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202104.0003.v1"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.04.019","article-title":"In-situ measurements from mobile platforms: An emerging approach to address the old challenges associated with forest inventories","volume":"143","author":"Liang","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1080\/22797254.2018.1482733","article-title":"Integrating terrestrial and airborne laser scanning for the assessment of single-tree attributes in Mediterranean forest stands","volume":"51","author":"Giannetti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2020.09.014","article-title":"Is field-measured tree height as reliable as believed \u2013 Part II, A comparison study of tree height estimates from conventional field measurement and low-cost close-range remote sensing in a deciduous forest","volume":"169","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bienert, A., Georgi, L., Kunz, M., Maas, H.G., and Von Oheimb, G. (2018). Comparison and Combination of Mobile and Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Natural Forest Inventories. Forests, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/f9070395"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.08.008","article-title":"Accuracy in estimation of timber assortments and stem distribution\u2014A comparison of airborne and terrestrial laser scanning techniques","volume":"97","author":"Kankare","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ku\u017eelka, K., Slav\u00edk, M., and Surov\u1ef3, P. (2020). Very high density point clouds from UAV laser scanning for automatic tree stem detection and direct diameter measurement. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12081236"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vandendaele, B., Fournier, R.A., Vepakomma, U., Pelletier, G., Lejeune, P., and Martin-Ducup, O. (2021). Estimation of northern hardwood forest inventory attributes using UAV laser scanning (ULS): Transferability of laser scanning methods and comparison of automated approaches at the tree-and stand-level. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13142796"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wieser, M., Mandlburger, G., Hollaus, M., Otepka, J., Glira, P., and Pfeifer, N. (2017). A case study of UAS borne laser scanning for measurement of tree stem diameter. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9111154"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puliti, S., Breidenbach, J., and Astrup, R. (2020). Estimation of forest growing stock volume with UAV laser scanning data: Can it be done without field data?. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12081245"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi1030242","article-title":"Detecting changes in forest structure over time with bi-temporal terrestrial laser scanning data","volume":"1","author":"Liang","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.3390\/s130201614","article-title":"Automatic stem mapping by merging several terrestrial laser scans at the feature and decision levels","volume":"13","author":"Liang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701736406","article-title":"Automatic forest inventory parameter determination from terrestrial laser scanner data","volume":"29","author":"Maas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"638","article-title":"Integrating Airborne LiDAR and Terrestrial Laser Scanner forest parameters for accurate above-ground biomass\/carbon estimation in Ayer Hitam tropical forest, Malaysia","volume":"73","author":"Bazezew","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"102917","article-title":"3D point cloud fusion from UAV and TLS to assess temperate managed forest structures","volume":"112","author":"Panagiotidis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3679","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2675963","article-title":"A novel automatic method for the fusion of ALS and TLS LiDAR data for robust assessment of tree crown structure","volume":"55","author":"Paris","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"102658","article-title":"Integrating terrestrial laser scanning and unmanned aerial vehicle photogrammetry to estimate individual tree attributes in managed coniferous forests in Japan","volume":"106","author":"Shimizu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, R., Sun, H., Ma, K., Tang, J., Chen, S., Fu, L., and Liu, Q. (2023). Improving Estimation of Tree Parameters by Fusing ALS and TLS Point Cloud Data Based on Canopy Gap Shape Feature Points. Drones, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones7080524"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40663-021-00290-3","article-title":"Seamless integration of above-and under-canopy unmanned aerial vehicle laser scanning for forest investigation","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"For. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2015.07.007","article-title":"Diameter distribution estimation with laser scanning based multisource single tree inventory","volume":"108","author":"Kankare","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111309","article-title":"In situ biomass estimation at tree and plot levels: What did data record and what did algorithms derive from terrestrial and aerial point clouds in boreal forest","volume":"232","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"SCAN FOREST (2024, March 20). Scan Forest Research Infrastructure Website. Available online: https:\/\/www.scanforest.fi."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Velodyne Lidar (2024, January 03). VLP-16 User Manual. Available online: https:\/\/velodynelidar.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/63-9243-Rev-E-VLP-16-User-Manual.pdf."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Ouster (2021, August 24). Ouster OS0 Rev. 5 Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/data.ouster.io\/downloads\/datasheets\/datasheet-rev05-v2p1-os0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Ouster (2023, May 04). Ouster OS0 Rev. C Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/data.ouster.io\/downloads\/datasheets\/datasheet-revc-v2p5-os0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Ouster (2023, May 04). Ouster OS0 Rev. 7 Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/data.ouster.io\/downloads\/datasheets\/datasheet-rev7-v3p0-os0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"RIEGL (2024, March 02). VUX-1HA Datasheet. Available online: http:\/\/www.riegl.com\/uploads\/tx_pxpriegldownloads\/RIEGL_VUX-1HA-22_Datasheet_2023-04-25.pdf."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Leica Geosystems (2024, January 02). Leica RTC360 Datasheet. Available online: https:\/\/leica-geosystems.com\/-\/media\/files\/leicageosystems\/products\/datasheets\/leica-rtc360-ds-872750-0821-en.ashx?la=da&hash=30083BF63CCCE6919BD7964EEC5ADC77."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"27","article-title":"Detecting and estimating attributes for single trees using laser scanning","volume":"16","author":"Inkinen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Photogramm. J. Finl."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1080\/02827580410019553","article-title":"Laser scanning of forest resources: The Nordic experience","volume":"19","author":"Gobakken","year":"2004","journal-title":"Scand. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophoto.2021.100007","article-title":"Efficient coarse registration method using translation-and rotation-invariant local descriptors towards fully automated forest inventory","volume":"2","author":"Muhojoki","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISPRS Open J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1684(94)90060-4","article-title":"Topographic distance and watershed lines","volume":"38","author":"Meyer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Ester, M., Kriegel, H.P., Sander, J., and Xu, X. (1996, January 2\u20134). A density-based algorithm for discovering clusters in large spatial databases with noise. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1145\/358669.358692","article-title":"Random sample consensus: A paradigm for model fitting with applications to image analysis and automated cartography","volume":"24","author":"Fischler","year":"1981","journal-title":"Commun. ACM"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.11.013","article-title":"Bias of cylinder diameter estimation from ground-based laser scanners with different beam widths: A simulation study","volume":"135","author":"Forsman","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.srs.2024.100121","article-title":"Comparing positioning accuracy of mobile laser scanning systems under a forest canopy","volume":"9","author":"Muhojoki","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4839","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5104839","article-title":"Enhanced Algorithms for Estimating Tree Trunk Diameter Using 2D Laser Scanner","volume":"5","author":"Ringdahl","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ku\u017eelka, K., and Surov\u00fd, P. (2024). Noise Analysis for Unbiased Tree Diameter Estimation from Personal Laser Scanning Data. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16071261"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Hyypp\u00e4, J., Mielonen, T., Hyypp\u00e4, H., Maltamo, M., Yu, X., Honkavaara, E., and Kaartinen, H. (2005, January 12\u201315). Using individual tree crown approach for forest volume extraction with aerial images and laser point clouds. Proceedings of the ISPRS Workshop Laser Scanning, Enschede, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xi, Z., and Hopkinson, C. (2022). 3D Graph-Based Individual-Tree Isolation (Treeiso) from Terrestrial Laser Scanning Point Clouds. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14236116"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.srs.2024.100125","article-title":"Accuracy comparison of terrestrial and airborne laser scanning and manual measurements for stem curve-based growth measurements of individual trees","volume":"9","author":"Soininen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/10\/1721\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:41:30Z","timestamp":1760107290000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/10\/1721"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16101721"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16101721","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,13]]}}}