{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T20:55:29Z","timestamp":1771275329822,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,14]],"date-time":"2024-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715644800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62271152"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62271152"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Crater detection is useful for research into dating a planetary surface\u2019s age and geological mapping. The high-resolution imaging camera (HiRIC) carried by the Tianwen-1 rover provides digital image model (DIM) datasets with a resolution of 0.7 m\/pixel, which are suitable for detecting meter-scale craters. The existing deep-learning-based automatic crater detection algorithms require a large number of crater annotation datasets for training. However, there is currently a lack of datasets of optical images of small-sized craters. In this study, we propose a model based on the Segment Anything Model (SAM) to detect craters in Tianwen-1\u2019s landing area and perform statistical analysis. The SAM network was used to obtain a segmentation mask of the craters from the DIM images. Then non-circular filtering was used to filter out irregular craters. Finally, deduplication and removal of false positives were performed to obtain accurate circular craters, and their center\u2019s position and diameter were obtained through circular fitting analysis. We extracted 841,727 craters in total, with diameters ranging from 1.57 m to 7910.47 m. These data are useful for further Martian crater catalogs and crater datasets. Additionally, the crater size\u2013frequency distribution (CSFD) was also analyzed, indicating that the surface ages of the Tianwen-1 landing area are ~3.25 billion years, with subsequent surface resurfacing events occurring ~1.67 billion years ago.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16101743","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,15]],"date-time":"2024-05-15T03:35:55Z","timestamp":1715744155000},"page":"1743","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Crater Detection and Population Statistics in Tianwen-1 Landing Area Based on Segment Anything Model (SAM)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-2487-2025","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yaqi","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Information Sciences of Electromagnetic Waves (MoE), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3803-3700","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongxia","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Information Sciences of Electromagnetic Waves (MoE), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-021-00823-w","article-title":"High Resolution Imaging Camera (HiRIC) on China\u2019s First Mars Exploration Tianwen-1 Mission","volume":"217","author":"Meng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1195050","article-title":"Global distribution of large lunar craters: Implications for resurfacing and impactor populations","volume":"329","author":"Head","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, T., Yang, Z., Kang, Z., Lin, H., Zhong, J., Zhang, D., Cao, Y., and Geng, H. (2022). Population of Degrading Small Impact Craters in the Chang\u2019E-4 Landing Area Using Descent and Ground Images. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14153608"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3256","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JE005820","article-title":"Rock Abundance and Crater Density in the Candidate Chang\u2019E-5 Landing Region on the Moon","volume":"123","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartmann, W.K., and Neukum, G. (2001). Chronology and Evolution of Mars: Proceedings of an ISSI Workshop, Bern, Switzerland, 10\u201314 April 2000, Springer Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-1035-0_6"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Neukum, G. (1983). Meteoritenbombardement und Datierung Planetarer Oberflachen. [Habilitation Dissertation, Faculty Membership, Ludwig-Maximilians-University]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pss.2017.05.006","article-title":"Crater density differences: Exploring regional resurfacing, secondary crater populations, and crater saturation equilibrium on the moon","volume":"162","author":"Povilaitis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Cheng, Y., Johnson, A.E., Matthies, L.H., and Olson, C.F. (2003, January 9\u201313). Optical landmark detection for spacecraft navigation. Proceedings of the 13th Annual AAS\/AIAA Space Flight Mechanics Meeting, Ponce, Puerto Rico."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/S0734-189X(88)80033-1","article-title":"A survey of the Hough transform","volume":"44","author":"Illingworth","year":"1988","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Graph. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Template matching using fast normalized cross correlation","volume":"4387","author":"Briechle","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1016\/S0262-8856(00)00111-6","article-title":"Crater detection for autonomous landing on asteroids","volume":"19","author":"Leroy","year":"2001","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galloway, M.J., Benedix, G.K., Bland, P.A., Paxman, J., Towner, M.C., and Tan, T. (2014, January 27\u201330). Automated crater detection and counting using the Hough transform. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIP.2014.7025316"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2024.01.004","article-title":"ChangeCLIP: Remote sensing change detection with multimodal vision-language representation learning","volume":"208","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"5211212","article-title":"Multiscale CNN Based on Component Analysis for SAR ATR","volume":"60","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Li, J., Chen, K., Tian, G., Li, L., and Shi, Z. (2024). MarsSeg: Mars Surface Semantic Segmentation with Multi-level Extractor and Connector. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2018.06.022","article-title":"Lunar crater identification via deep learning","volume":"317","author":"Silburt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Speyerer, E., Robinson, M., Denevi, B., and Team, L.S. (2011, January 7\u201311). Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera Global Morphological Map of the Moon. Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Ronneberger, O., Fischer, P., and Brox, T. (2015). Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention\u2013MICCAI 2015, Proceedings of the 18th International Conference, Munich, Germany, 5\u20139 October 2015, Springer International Publishing. Proceedings, Part III."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pss.2019.03.008","article-title":"Automated crater detection on Mars using deep learning","volume":"170","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, D., Hu, F., Mathiopoulos, P.T., Zhang, Z., and Peethambaran, J. (2023). MC-UNet: Martian Crater Segmentation at Semantic and Instance Levels Using U-Net-Based Convolutional Neural Network. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15010266"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8577","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2023.3314128","article-title":"SqUNet: An High-Performance Network for Crater Detection With DEM Data","volume":"16","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6358","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-20215-y","article-title":"Lunar impact crater identification and age estimation with Chang\u2019E data by deep and transfer learning","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robbins, S.J., and Hynek, B.M. (2012). A new global database of Mars impact craters \u22651 km: 1. Database creation, properties, and parameters. J. Geophys. Res. Planets, 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JE003966"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2020.116272","article-title":"A catalogue of impact craters larger than 200 m and surface age analysis in the Chang\u2019e-5 landing area","volume":"541","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"4701117","article-title":"RSPrompter: Learning to prompt for remote sensing instance segmentation based on visual foundation model","volume":"62","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirillov, A., Mintun, E., Ravi, N., Mao, H., Rolland, C., Gustafson, L., Xiao, T., Whitehead, S., Berg, A.C., and Lo, W.-Y. (2023). Segment anything. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV51070.2023.00371"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102918","DOI":"10.1016\/j.media.2023.102918","article-title":"Segment anything model for medical image analysis: An experimental study","volume":"89","author":"Mazurowski","year":"2023","journal-title":"Med. Image Anal."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2023.115797","article-title":"A flexible deep learning crater detection scheme using Segment Anything Model (SAM)","volume":"408","author":"Giannakis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1038\/s41550-020-1148-6","article-title":"China\u2019s first mission to Mars","volume":"4","author":"Wan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Astron."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JE007089","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JE007089","article-title":"Layered Ejecta Craters in the Candidate Landing Areas of China\u2019s First Mars Mission (Tianwen-1): Implications for Subsurface Volatile Concentrations","volume":"127","author":"Niu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021GL094903","DOI":"10.1029\/2021GL094903","article-title":"Geological Characteristics and Targets of High Scientific Interest in the Zhurong Landing Region on Mars","volume":"48","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021EA001670","DOI":"10.1029\/2021EA001670","article-title":"Characterization of the Candidate Landing Region for Tianwen-1\u2014China\u2019s First Mission to Mars","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2021.114657","article-title":"Geological characteristics of China\u2019s Tianwen-1 landing site at Utopia Planitia, Mars","volume":"370","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JE007137","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JE007137","article-title":"Landing Site Selection and Characterization of Tianwen-1 (Zhurong Rover) on Mars","volume":"127","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2023.115776","article-title":"Cross-attention induced multilayer domain adaptation network for extraction of sub-kilometer craters from HiRIC images","volume":"407","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Dosovitskiy, A., Beyer, L., Kolesnikov, A., Weissenborn, D., Zhai, X., Unterthiner, T., Dehghani, M., Minderer, M., Heigold, G., and Gelly, S. (2020). An image is worth 16x16 words: Transformers for image recognition at scale. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"600","article-title":"Attention is all you need","volume":"30","author":"Vaswani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Mordvintsev, A., and Abid, K. (2024, January 10). Opencv-Python Tutorials Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/buildmedia.readthedocs.org\/media\/pdf\/opencv-python\/latest\/opencv-python.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Bottema, M.J. (2000, January 5\u20139). Circularity of objects in images. Proceedings of the 2000 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (Cat. No. 00CH37100), Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2022.117764","article-title":"Transverse aeolian ridges in the landing area of the Tianwen-1 Zhurong rover on Utopia Planitia, Mars","volume":"595","author":"Gou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Fan, Z., Li, Z., Zhang, H., and Wei, C. (2020). An effective lunar crater recognition algorithm based on convolutional neural network. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12172694"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44107","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3066445","article-title":"Moon impact crater detection using nested attention mechanism based UNet++","volume":"9","author":"Jia","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11025","DOI":"10.1029\/93JE00121","article-title":"Degradation of selected terrestrial and Martian impact craters","volume":"98","author":"Grant","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011941121102","article-title":"Mars\/Moon cratering rate ratio estimates","volume":"96","author":"Ivanov","year":"2001","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Neukum, G., Ivanov, B.A., and Hartmann, W.K. (2001). Chronology and Evolution of Mars, Proceedings of an ISSI Workshop, Bern, Switzerland, 10\u201314 April 2000, Springer."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2009.12.041","article-title":"Planetary surface dating from crater size\u2013frequency distribution measurements: Partial resurfacing events and statistical age uncertainty","volume":"294","author":"Michael","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanaka, K.L., Skinner, J.A., Dohm, J.M., Irwin, R.P., Kolb, E.J., Fortezzo, C.M., Platz, T., Michael, G.G., and Hare, T.M. (2014). Geologic Map of Mars.","DOI":"10.3133\/sim3292"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2013.09.018","article-title":"Mud volcanism and morphology of impact craters in Utopia Planitia on Mars: Evidence for the ancient ocean","volume":"228","author":"Ivanov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.26464\/epp2023005","article-title":"Observations and interpretations of geomorphologic features in the Tianwen-1 landing area on Mars by using orbital imagery data","volume":"7","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Phys."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/10\/1743\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:42:25Z","timestamp":1760107345000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/10\/1743"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,14]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16101743"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16101743","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,14]]}}}