{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T11:40:39Z","timestamp":1765280439918,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]],"date-time":"2024-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717718400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42274044","41874042","41974010","2023-01-06"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274044","41874042","41974010","2023-01-06"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geo-Information Engineering and Key Laboratory of Surveying and Mapping Science and Geospatial Information Technology of MNR, the Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping","award":["42274044","41874042","41974010","2023-01-06"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274044","41874042","41974010","2023-01-06"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to the difference in the quality of the global assimilation data and the ability to reproduce the real conditions of the atmosphere, the hourly atmospheric temperature at 2 m above the land surface from ERA5 cannot be used with complete confidence for the atmospheric weighted mean temperature (Tm) calculations and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) precipitable water vapor (PWV) inversion. A systematic and complete refinement method is proposed, including the compensation of elevation matching bias of gridded temperature, correction of fixed-time cusp data fitting and refinement based on the remove-and-restore model. The usability and accuracy improvement of the refined ERA5 2 m atmospheric temperature in the Tm and PWV calculation were validated based on three GNSS stations. The result shows that the average accuracy of the Tm and PWV for the entire region could be increased by 74.4% and 75.1%, respectively. The RMS of the highest station was reduced from 4.28 K to 0.62 K for the Tm and 0.662 mm to 0.203 mm for the PWV, and the RMS of other stations was reduced from 1.25 to 0.44 K for the Tm and 0.211 mm to 0.101 mm for the PWV. This overall refinement method has important implications for atmospheric remote sensing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16122055","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]],"date-time":"2024-06-07T08:05:17Z","timestamp":1717747517000},"page":"2055","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Augmentation Method for Weighted Mean Temperature and Precipitable Water Vapor Based on the Refined Air Temperature at 2 m above the Surface of Land from ERA5"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5017-4901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caiya","family":"Yue","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography and Environment, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252059, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Surveying and Mapping Science and Geospatial Information Technology of MNR, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Changhui","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1997)078<0197:EAGMEB>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Earth\u2019s annual global mean energy budget","volume":"78","author":"Kiehl","year":"1997","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-008-0238-5","article-title":"Climate applications of a global, 2-hourly atmospheric precipitable water dataset derived from IGS tropospheric products","volume":"83","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1590\/1809-4430-eng.agric.v39nep48-55\/2019","article-title":"Rainfall zoning for cocoa growing in Bahia State (Brazil) using fuzzy logic","volume":"39","author":"Franco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Agr\u00edcola"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1918","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2010401","article-title":"Variability and climatology of PWV from global 13-year GPS observations","volume":"47","author":"Jin","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE T Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2199","DOI":"10.1007\/s12145-023-01025-4","article-title":"Assessment of the performance of GPS-PWV and rainfall event prediction by using precise products from different analysis centers","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Inform."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-019-01290-6","article-title":"On the suitability of ERA5 in hourly GPS precipitable water vapor retrieval over China","volume":"93","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, Y., Liu, C., Xu, C., Tan, Y., and Khan, S. (2020). A refined tomographic window for GNSS-derived water vapor tomography. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12182999"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2018.06.016","article-title":"Near-global GPS-derived PWV and its analysis in the El Ni\u00f1o event of 2014\u20132016","volume":"179","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1994)033<0379:GMMZWD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"GPS Meteorology: Mapping Zenith Wet Delays onto Precipitable Water","volume":"33","author":"Bevis","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s43020-021-00046-y","article-title":"Spatiotemporal characteristics of GNSS-derived precipitable water vapor during heavy rainfall events in Guilin, China","volume":"2","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Satell. Navig."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s43020-023-00121-6","article-title":"Characterizing extreme drought and wetness in Guangdong, China using global navigation satellite system and precipitation data","volume":"5","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Satell. Navig."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1085","article-title":"Global empirical model for estimating water vapor scale height","volume":"44","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15787","DOI":"10.1029\/92JD01517","article-title":"GPS meteorology: Remote sensing of the atmospheric water vapor using the global positioning system","volume":"97","author":"Bevis","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2001)018<0830:COMOAW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Comparison of measurements of atmospheric wet delay by radiosonde, water vapor radiometer, GPS, and VLBI","volume":"18","author":"Niell","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"7529","article-title":"A near-global, 2-hourly data set of atmospheric precipitable water from ground-based GPS measurements","volume":"112","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-012-0258-8","article-title":"GPS-PWV estimation and validation with radiosonde data and numerical weather prediction model in Antarctica","volume":"17","year":"2013","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3322","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2023.3261381","article-title":"A Novel Global Grid Model for Atmospheric Weighted Mean Temperature in Real-Time GNSS Precipitable Water Vapor Sounding","volume":"16","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-023-01506-5","article-title":"A new model for vertical adjustment of precipitable water vapor with consideration of the time-varying lapse rate","volume":"27","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"247","article-title":"Atmospheric correction for the troposphere and stratosphere in radio ranging satellites","volume":"15","author":"Saastamoinen","year":"1972","journal-title":"Use Artif. Satell. Geod."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3629","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JB003629","article-title":"Troposphere mapping functions for GPS and very long baseline interferometry from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts operational analysis data","volume":"111","author":"Boehm","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid. Earth"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3235","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD003235","article-title":"On the determination of atmospheric water vapor from GPS measurements","volume":"108","author":"Hagemann","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-79-2016","article-title":"The uncertainty of the atmospheric integrated water vapour estimated from GNSS observations","volume":"9","author":"Ning","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2017.11.023","article-title":"Total column water vapor estimation over land using radiometer data from SAC-D\/Aquarius","volume":"61","author":"Epeloa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-83-11-1631","article-title":"NCEP-DOE AMIP-II Reanalysis (R-2)","volume":"83","author":"Kanamitsu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-8-1339-2015","article-title":"Development of the GEOS-5 atmospheric general circulation model: Evolution from MERRA to MERRA2","volume":"8","author":"Molod","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geosci. Model. Dev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2018.07.002","article-title":"JRA-55 based surface dataset for driving ocean\u2013sea-ice models (JRA55-do)","volume":"130","author":"Hiroyuki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean Model."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105276","article-title":"Heatwaves, droughts, and fires: Exploring compound and cascading dry hazards at the pan-European scale","volume":"134","author":"Samuel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105365","article-title":"Spatial performance of multiple reanalysis precipitation datasets on the southern slope of central Himalaya","volume":"250","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.828","article-title":"The ERA-Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system","volume":"137","author":"Dee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7643","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0591.1","article-title":"The use of ground-based GPS precipitable water measurements over China to assess radiosonde and ERA-Interim moisture trends and errors from 1999 to 2015","volume":"30","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JAMC2498.1","article-title":"Quantifying differences between 2 m temperature observations and reanalysis pressure level temperatures in northwestern North America","volume":"50","author":"Reuten","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8113","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-18-8113-2018","article-title":"On the suitability of current atmospheric reanalyses for regional warming studies over China","volume":"18","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1440","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JCLI1463.1","article-title":"Calibrating and evaluating reanalysis surface temperature error by topographic correction","volume":"21","author":"Zhao","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"155","article-title":"Geopotential numbers from GPS satellite surveying and disturbing potential model: A case study of parana, brazil","volume":"5","author":"Ferreira","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2017.09.008","article-title":"Monitoring of the temporal and spatial variation of groundwater storage in the three gorges area based on the CORS network","volume":"146","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2340","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-014-0275-9","article-title":"Analysis of the global Tm\u2212Ts correlation and establishment of the latitude-related linear model","volume":"59","author":"Yao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-012-0279-3","article-title":"M_DCB: Matlab code for estimating GNSS satellite and receiver differential code biases","volume":"16","author":"Jin","year":"2012","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3709","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-022-01370-9","article-title":"M_GIM: A MATLAB-based software for multi-system global and regional ionospheric modeling","volume":"27","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4389","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL060271","article-title":"An improved model for calculating tropospheric wet delay","volume":"41","author":"Dousa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-017-0628-3","article-title":"Using external tropospheric corrections to improve gnss positioning of hot-air balloon","volume":"21","author":"Vaclavovic","year":"2017","journal-title":"GPS Solut."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2055\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:55:16Z","timestamp":1760108116000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2055"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16122055"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16122055","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,7]]}}}