{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T21:54:47Z","timestamp":1767909287153,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,9]],"date-time":"2024-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717891200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico (CNPq)","award":["307792\/2021-8"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["307792\/2021-8"]}]},{"name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico (CNPq)","award":["141035\/2021-8"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["141035\/2021-8"]}]},{"name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico (CNPq)","award":["401741\/2023-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["401741\/2023-0"]}]},{"name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico (CNPq)","award":["001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["001"]}]},{"name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior\u2014Brasil (CAPES)","award":["307792\/2021-8"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["307792\/2021-8"]}]},{"name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior\u2014Brasil (CAPES)","award":["141035\/2021-8"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["141035\/2021-8"]}]},{"name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior\u2014Brasil (CAPES)","award":["401741\/2023-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["401741\/2023-0"]}]},{"name":"Coordena\u00e7\u00e3o de Aperfei\u00e7oamento de Pessoal de N\u00edvel Superior\u2014Brasil (CAPES)","award":["001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Full-waveform LiDAR (FWF) offers a promising advantage over other technologies to represent the vertical canopy structure of secondary successions in the Amazon region, as the waveform encapsulates the properties of all elements intercepting the emitted beam. In this study, we investigated modifications in the vertical structure of the Amazonian secondary successions across the vegetation gradient from early to advanced stages of vegetation regrowth. The analysis was performed over two distinct climatic regions (Drier and Wetter), designated using the Maximum Cumulative Water Deficit (MCWD). The study area was covered by 309 sample plots distributed along 25 LiDAR transects. The plots were grouped into three successional stages (early\u2014SS1; intermediate\u2014SS2; advanced\u2014SS3). Mature Forest (MF) was used as a reference of comparison. A total of 14 FWF LiDAR metrics from four categories of analysis (Height, Peaks, Understory and Gaussian Decomposition) were extracted using the Waveform LiDAR for Forestry eXtraction (WoLFeX) software (v1.1.1). In addition to examining the variation in these metrics across different successional stages, we calculated their Relative Recovery (RR) with vegetation regrowth, and evaluated their ability to discriminate successional stages using Random Forest (RF). The results showed significant differences in FWF metrics across the successional stages, and within and between sample plots and regions. The Drier region generally exhibited more pronounced differences between successional stages and lower FWF metric values compared to the Wetter region, mainly in the category of height, peaks, and Gaussian decomposition. Furthermore, the Drier region displayed a lower relative recovery of metrics in the early years of succession, compared to the areas of MF, eventually reaching rates akin to those of the Wetter region as succession progressed. Canopy height metrics such as Waveform distance (WD), and Gaussian Decomposition metrics such as Bottom of canopy (BC), Bottom of canopy distance (BCD) and Canopy distance (CD), related to the height of the lower forest stratum, were the most important attributes in discriminating successional stages in both analyzed regions. However, the Drier region exhibited superior discrimination between successional stages, achieving a weighted F1-score of 0.80 compared to 0.73 in the Wetter region. When comparing the metrics from SS in different stages to MF, our findings underscore that secondary forests achieve substantial relative recovery of FWF metrics within the initial 10 years after land abandonment. Regions with potentially slower relative recovery (e.g., Drier regions) may require longer-term planning to ensure success in providing full potential ecosystem services in the Amazon.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16122085","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,10]],"date-time":"2024-06-10T08:49:03Z","timestamp":1718009343000},"page":"2085","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Characterizing Canopy Structure Variability in Amazonian Secondary Successions with Full-Waveform Airborne LiDAR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Aline D.","family":"Jacon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8313-0497","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"L\u00eanio Soares","family":"Galv\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5318-2627","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rorai Pereira","family":"Martins-Neto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (CULS), Kam\u00fdck\u00e1 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2241-4493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pablo","family":"Crespo-Peremarch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geo-Environmental Cartography and Remote Sensing Group (CGAT), Department of Cartographic Engineering, Geodesy and Photogrammetry, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Cam\u00ed de Vera s\/n, 46022 Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"},{"name":"Escuela Superior de Ingenier\u00eda, Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda, Valencian International University\u2014VIU, Calle Pintor Sorolla 21, 46002 Val\u00e8ncia, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4134-6708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luiz E. O. C.","family":"Arag\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4221-1039","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean P.","family":"Ometto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"General Coordination of Earth Science, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9545-5136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liana O.","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Monitoring and Early Warning of Natural Disasters (CEMADEN), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12247-016, SP, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Laura Barbosa","family":"Vedovato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Technological Research (IPT), Av. Prof. Almeida Prado, Butant\u00e3, S\u00e3o Paulo 05508-901, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1052-5551","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Celso H. L.","family":"Silva-Junior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amaz\u00f4nia (IPAM), SCN 211, Bloco B, Sala 201, Bras\u00edlia 70836-520, GO, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7668-1226","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aline Pontes","family":"Lopes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3137-211X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vin\u00edcius","family":"Peripato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Mauro","family":"Assis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1319-7717","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisca R. S.","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Isadora","family":"Haddad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Catherine Torres","family":"de Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Agricultural Sciences of Vale do Ribeira-C\u00e2mpus de Registro, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (UNESP) J\u00falio de Mesquita Filho, Registro 11900-000, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6728-4712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henrique L. G.","family":"Cassol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observation and Geoinformatics Division, National Institute for Space Research (INPE), S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 dos Campos 12227-010, SP, Brazil"},{"name":"Bluebell Index, R. do Rocio, 291-Vila Ol\u00edmpia, S\u00e3o Paulo 04552-000, SP, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7151-8697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Dalagnol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"},{"name":"NASA-Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abh3629","article-title":"Multidimensional Tropical Forest Recovery","volume":"374","author":"Poorter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chazdon, R.L. 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