{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:10:52Z","timestamp":1760145052824,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]],"date-time":"2024-06-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718236800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Lhasa National Geophysical Observation and Research Station","award":["NORSLS22-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NORSLS22-02"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Three-dimensional coseismic surface deformation fields are important for quantifying the geometric and kinematic characteristics of earthquake rupture faults. However, traditional geodetic techniques are constrained by intrinsic limitations: Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) can only extract far-field deformation fields owing to incoherence; global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs) can only acquire displacement at discrete points. The recently developed optical pixel correlation technique, which is based on high-resolution remote sensing images, can acquire near-field coseismic horizontal deformation. In this study, InSAR line-of-sight (LOS) and azimuth direction far-field deformation, horizontal near-field deformation determined using optical pixel correlation based on pre- and post-earthquake GaoFen (GF)-2\/7 images, and vertical deformation determined by differencing pre- and post-earthquake GF-7 digital elevation models (DEMs) were combined to comprehensively provide the three-dimensional deformation field of the 2022 Mw 6.6 Menyuan earthquake. The results show that the near-field deformation field calculated by optical pixel correlation quantified displacements distributed over the rupture fault zone, which were not available from the InSAR deformation maps. We identified significant vertical displacements of ~1\u20131.5 m at a bend region, which were induced by local compressive stress. The maximum uplift (&gt;2.0 m) occurred near the epicenter, on the southern sides of the main and secondary faults along the middle segment of the ruptured Lenglongling fault. In addition, surface two-dimensional strain derived from the displacement maps calculated by optical pixel correlation revealed high strain concentration on the rupture fault zone. The method described herein provides a new tool for a better understanding of the characteristics of coseismic surface deformation and rupture patterns of faults.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16122147","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]],"date-time":"2024-06-13T10:41:03Z","timestamp":1718275263000},"page":"2147","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Three-Dimensional Surface Deformation of the 2022 Mw 6.6 Menyuan Earthquake from InSAR and GF-7 Stereo Satellite Images"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Nana","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Shanghai Earthquake Agency, Shanghai 200062, China"},{"name":"Shanghai Sheshan National Geophysical Observatory, Shanghai 201602, China"}]},{"given":"Xinjian","family":"Shan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"given":"Yingfeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"given":"Jiaqing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6142-3942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guohong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"215","article-title":"Coseismic surface rupture and seismogenic structure of the 2022 Ms6.9 Menyuan earthquake, Qinghai Province, China","volume":"96","author":"Pan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Geol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1126\/science.105978","article-title":"Oblique stepwise rise and growth of the Tibet Plateau","volume":"294","author":"Tapponnier","year":"2001","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Deng, Q., Ran, Y., Yang, X., Min, W., and Chu, Q. (2007). Active Tectonic Map of China, Seismological Press."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ou, Q., Kulikova, G., Yu, J., Elliott, A., Parsons, B., and Walker, R. (2020). Magnitude of the 1920 Haiyuan earthquake reestimated using seismological and geomorphological methods. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 125.","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JB019244"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, P., Han, Z., Gao, F., Zhu, C., and Gai, H. (2020). A new tectonic model for the 1927 M8. 0 Gulang earthquake on the NE Tibetan Plateau. Tectonics, 39.","DOI":"10.1029\/2020TC006064"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, Y., Yuan, D., Xie, H., Su, R., Su, Q., Li, Z., Sun, H., Si, G., Yu, J., and Chen, Y. (2023). Typical Fine Structure and Seismogenic Mechanism Analysis of the Surface Rupture of the 2022 Menyuan Mw 6.7 Earthquake. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15184375"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"155","article-title":"Surface rupture investigation of the 2022 Menyuan MS 6. 9 Earthquake, Qinghai, China: Implications for the fault behavior of the Lenglongling fault and regional intense earthquake risk","volume":"28","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geomech."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1785\/0120220163","article-title":"The 2022 Mw 6.7 Menyuan Earthquake on the Northeastern Margin of the Tibetan Plateau, China: Complex Surface Ruptures and Large Slip","volume":"113","author":"Niu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Hu, J., Li, Z., Ma, Z., Shi, J., Xu, W., and Sun, Q. (2022). Three-Dimensional Surface Displacements of the 8 January 2022 Mw6.7 Menyuan Earthquake, China from Sentinel-1 and ALOS-2 SAR Observations. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14061404"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Jiang, W., Li, Y., Shen, W., He, Z., Li, B., Li, Q., Jiao, Q., and Tian, Y. (2022). Coseismic Rupture Model and Tectonic Implications of the January 7 2022, Menyuan Mw 6.6 Earthquake Constraints from InSAR Observations and Field Investigation. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.1002\/essoar.10510772.1"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"887","article-title":"Source Parameters and Slip Distributions of the 2016 and 2022 Menyuan, Qinghai Earthquakes Constrained by InSAR Observations","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bello, S., Andrenacci, C., Cirillo, D., Scott, C.P., Brozzetti, F., Arrowsmith, J.R., and Lavecchia, G. (2022). High-Detail Fault Segmentation: Deep Insight into the Anatomy of the 1983 Borah Peak Earthquake Rupture Zone (Mw 6.9, Idaho, USA). Lithosphere, 2022.","DOI":"10.2113\/2022\/8100224"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1029\/2018TC005305","article-title":"High-Resolution Field Mapping and Analysis of the August\u2013October 2016 Coseismic Surface Faulting (Central Italy Earthquakes): Slip Distribution, Parameterization, and Comparison with Global Earthquakes","volume":"38","author":"Brozzetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Tectonics"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1080\/17445647.2018.1441756","article-title":"Surface ruptures following the 30 October 2016 M w 6.5 Norcia earthquake, central Italy","volume":"14","author":"Civico","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Maps"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1130\/GES00933.1","article-title":"Assembly of a large earthquake from a complex fault system: Surface rupture kinematics of the 4 April 2010 El Mayor\u2013Cucapah (Mexico) Mw 7.2 earthquake","volume":"10","author":"Fletcher","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geosphere"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mapping the geology of the 2016 Central Italy earth-quake fault (Mt. Vettore\u2013Mt. Bove fault, Sibillini Mts.): Geological details on the Cupi\u2013Ussita and Mt. Bove\u2013Mt. Porche segments and overall pattern of coseismic surface faulting","volume":"11","author":"Testa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Field Trips Maps"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810891","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2022.810891","article-title":"Co-Seismic Surface Ruptures of the CE 1738 M 7.6 Dangjiang Earthquake Along the NW Continuation of the Xianshuihe Fault Zone and Tectonic Implications for the Central Tibetan Plateau","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1785\/0120110230","article-title":"High-resolution Topography-derived offsets along the 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake rupture trace, San Andreas Fault","volume":"102","author":"Zielke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1213778","article-title":"Near-field deformation from the El Mayor\u2013Cucapah earthquake revealed by differential LIDAR","volume":"335","author":"Oskin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1257","article-title":"Surface Ruptures of the 2022 Mw 6.7 Menyuan Earthquake Revealed by Integrated Remote Sensing","volume":"47","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2023.118412","article-title":"The 2022, Ms 6.9 Menyuan earthquake: Surface rupture, Paleozoic suture re-activation, slip-rate and seismic gap along the Haiyuan fault system, NE Tibet","volume":"622","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Menichetti, M., Roccheggiani, M., De Guidi, G., Carnemolla, F., Brighenti, F., Barreca, G., and Monaco, C. (2023). Sentinel-1 Interferometry and UAV Aerial Survey for Mapping Coseismic Ruptures: Mts. Sibillini vs. Mt. Etna Volcano. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15102514"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2013.01.040","article-title":"Coseismic slip variation assessed from terrestrial lidar scans of the El Mayor\u2013Cucapah surface rupture","volume":"366","author":"Gold","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"978","article-title":"Three-dimensional deformation of the 2008 Gaize earthquakes resolved from InSAR measurements by multiple view angles and its tectonic implications","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Seismol. Geol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brozzetti, F., Mondini, A.C., Pauselli, C., Mancinelli, P., Cirillo, D., Guzzetti, F., and Lavecchia, G. (2020). Mainshock Anticipated by Intra-Sequence Ground Deformations: Insights from Multiscale Field and SAR Interferometric Measurements. Geosciences, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences10050186"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, S., Wen, Y., Gong, X., and Liu, J. (2023). Coseismic and Early Postseismic Deformation of the 2020 Mw 6.4 Petrinja Earthquake (Croatia) Revealed by InSAR. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15102617"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, Z., Fialko, Y., Zubovich, A., and Sch\u00f6ne, T. (2022). Lithospheric deformation due to the 2015 M7.2 Sarez (Pamir) earthquake constrained by 5 years of space geodetic observations. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 127.","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JB022461"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3063","DOI":"10.1029\/2001GL013174","article-title":"The complete (3-D) surface displacement field in the epicentral area of the 1999 Mw7.1 Hector Mine earthquake, Southern California, from space geodetic observations","volume":"28","author":"Fialko","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jag.2018.06.001","article-title":"The 2016 Mw 6.7 Aketao earthquake in Muji range, northern Pamir: Rupture on a strike-slip fault constrained by sentinel-1 radar interferometry and GPS","volume":"73","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2675","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.918649","article-title":"In-flight CCD distortion calibration for pushbroom satellites based on subpixel correlation","volume":"46","author":"Leprince","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.03.002","article-title":"Measurement of ground displacement from optical satellite image correlation using the free open-source software MicMac","volume":"100","author":"Rosu","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogram. Rem. Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tecto.2015.08.019","article-title":"On-and off-fault deformation associated with the September 2013 Mw 7.7 Balochistan earthquake: Implications for geologic slip rate measurements","volume":"660","author":"Gold","year":"2015","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gold, R.D., DuRoss, C.B., and Barnhart, W.D. (2021). Coseismic surface displacement in the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes: Comparison of field measurements and optical image correlation results. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 22.","DOI":"10.1029\/2020GC009326"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GC007951","article-title":"Three-dimensional surface deformation in the 2016 MW 7.8 Kaik\u014dura, New Zealand, earthquake from optical image correlation: Implications for strain localization and long-term evolution of the Pacific-Australian plate boundary","volume":"20","author":"Zinke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milliner, C., Donnellan, A., Aati, S., Avouac, J.-P., Zinke, R., Dolan, J.F., Wang, K., and B\u00fcrgmann, R. (2021). Bookshelf kinematics and the effect of dilatation on fault zone inelastic deformation: Examples from optical image correlation measurements of the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquake sequence. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 126.","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JB020551"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6341","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL082202","article-title":"The 2016 M7 Kumamoto, Japan, earthquake slip field derived from a joint inversion of differential lidar topography, optical correlation, and InSAR surface displacements","volume":"46","author":"Scott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1785\/0220220139","article-title":"Extremely Large Off-Fault Deformation during the 2021 Mw 7.4 Maduo, Tibetan Plateau. Earthquake","volume":"94","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1747","article-title":"Coseismic Surface Horizontal Deformation of the 2022 Mw 6.6 Menyuan, Qinghai, China, Earthquake from Optical Pixel Correlation of GF-7 Stereo Satellite Images","volume":"94","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nissen, E., Krishnan, A.K., Arrowsmith, J.R., and Saripalli, S. (2012). Three-dimensional surface displacements and rotations from differencing pre- and post-earthquake LiDAR point clouds. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012GL052460"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8793","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JB012358","article-title":"Assessing the ability of Pleiades stereo imagery to determine height changes in earthquakes: A case study for the El Mayor-Cucapah epicentral area","volume":"120","author":"Zhou","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1029\/TC006i001p00013","article-title":"Paleomagnetism and crustal rotations along a shear zone, Las Vegas Range, southern Nevada","volume":"6","author":"Nelson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Tectonics"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shelef, E., and Oskin, M. (2010). Deformation processes adjacent to active faults: Examples from eastern California. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 115.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JB006289"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04797","article-title":"Interseismic strain accumulation and the earthquake potential on the southern San Andreas fault system","volume":"441","author":"Fialko","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1785\/gssrl.78.1.116","article-title":"Implications of geodetic strain rate for future earthquakes, with a five-year forecast of M5 earthquakes in southern California","volume":"78","author":"Shen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, D., Qu, C., Chen, H., Shan, X., Song, X., and Gong, W. (2021). Tectonic and geometric control on fault kinematics of the 2021 Mw7. 3 Maduo (China) earthquake inferred from interseismic, coseismic, and postseismic InSAR observations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 48.","DOI":"10.1029\/2021GL095417"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-020-0628-8","article-title":"Localized fault-zone dilatancy and surface inelasticity of the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes","volume":"13","author":"Barnhart","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5107","DOI":"10.1029\/97JB03211","article-title":"A generalized law for brittle deformation of Westerly granite","volume":"103","author":"Lockner","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1785\/0220230115","article-title":"Characterizing Deep, Shallow, and Surface Fault Zone Deformation of the 2021 Mw 7.4 Maduo, China, Earthquake","volume":"95","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Li, T., Hollingsworth, J., Zhang, Y., Qian, L., and Shan, X. (2023). Strain threshold for the formation of coseismic surface rupture. Geophys. Res. Lett., 50.","DOI":"10.1029\/2023GL103666"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2147\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:58:11Z","timestamp":1760108291000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2147"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16122147"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16122147","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]]}}}