{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T05:24:45Z","timestamp":1775539485141,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,14]],"date-time":"2024-06-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718323200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022YFE0119500"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFE0119500"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2125AA130"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2125AA130"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Research on Advancement of Climate Change Impact Assessment Methodology","award":["2022YFE0119500"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFE0119500"]}]},{"name":"Research on Advancement of Climate Change Impact Assessment Methodology","award":["2125AA130"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2125AA130"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mongolia\u2019s substantial mineral resources have played a pivotal role in its economic progress, with mining activities significantly contributing to this development. However, these continuous mining operations, particularly at the Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold mine, have induced land subsidence that threatens both production activities and poses risks of geological and other natural disasters. This study employs the Small Baseline Subset Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (SBAS-InSAR) technique to monitor and analyze time-series surface subsidence using 120 Sentinel-1A datasets from 2018 to 2022. The findings reveal that the SBAS-InSAR method successfully captures the subsidence and its spatial distribution at Oyu Tolgoi, with the maximum cumulative subsidence reaching \u2212742.01 mm and the highest annual average subsidence rate at \u2212158.11 mm\/year. Key drivers identified for the subsidence include variations in groundwater levels, active mining operations, and changes in surface stress. This research underscores the ongoing subsidence issue at the Oyu Tolgoi mining area, providing crucial insights that could aid in enhancing mining safety and environmental conservation in the region.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16122166","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,17]],"date-time":"2024-06-17T04:48:12Z","timestamp":1718599692000},"page":"2166","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Time-Series Analysis of Mining-Induced Subsidence in the Arid Region of Mongolia Based on SBAS-InSAR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0815-1600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuxin","family":"Xie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0471-7135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hasi","family":"Bagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China"}]},{"given":"Luwen","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China"}]},{"given":"Terigelehu","family":"Te","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China"}]},{"given":"Amarsaikhan","family":"Damdinsuren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geography and Geoecology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar 13330, Mongolia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7723-5412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qinxue","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Regional Environment Conservation Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.112767","article-title":"Hydro-social dynamics of miningscapes: Obstacles to implementing water protection legislation in Mongolia","volume":"292","author":"Schoderer","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resourpol.2022.102628","article-title":"Improving the policy framework for financial assurance for mine closure in Mongolia","volume":"77","author":"Zandariya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Resour. Policy"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resourpol.2022.102794","article-title":"Does mining improve rural livelihood?: Evidence from Mongolia","volume":"78","author":"Batdelger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Resour. Policy"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resourpol.2019.101455","article-title":"Can mineral exploration projects create and share value with communities? A case study from Mongolia","volume":"63","author":"Fraser","year":"2019","journal-title":"Resour. Policy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2011.08.009","article-title":"Resource depletion, peak minerals and the implications for sustainable resource management","volume":"22","author":"Prior","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture3040660","article-title":"Soil erosion from agriculture and mining: A threat to tropical stream ecosystems","volume":"3","author":"Wantzen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agriculture"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"215","article-title":"Environmental issues from coal mining and their solutions","volume":"20","author":"Zhengfu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Min. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Zhai, Z., Zhou, Y., Liu, S., and Wang, L. (2022). The Landscape Pattern Evolution of Typical Open-Pit Coal Mines Based on Land Use in Inner Mongolia of China during 20 Years. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14159590"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"681","article-title":"Why do some communities resist mining projects while others do not?","volume":"4","author":"Conde","year":"2017","journal-title":"Extr. Ind. Soc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1016\/S1365-1609(01)00061-2","article-title":"Prediction of progressive surface subsidence above longwall coal mining using a time function","volume":"38","author":"Cui","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1515\/geo-2018-0065","article-title":"Deformation and subsidence prediction on surface of Yuzhou mined-out areas along middle route project of south-to-north water diversion, China","volume":"10","author":"Ding","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open Geosci."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"271","article-title":"Analysis of subsidence caused by underground mining","volume":"2","author":"Siriwardane","year":"1984","journal-title":"Int. J. Min. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1390","DOI":"10.1785\/0120000933","article-title":"Coseismic deformation from the 1999 M w 7.1 Hector Mine, California, earthquake as inferred from InSAR and GPS observations","volume":"92","author":"Simons","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2185","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-014-1421-z","article-title":"A new prediction model for mining subsidence deformation: The arc tangent function model","volume":"75","author":"Nie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmst.2016.11.012","article-title":"Comparison of L-band and X-band differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar for mine subsidence monitoring in central Utah","volume":"27","author":"Wempen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Min. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"3983","article-title":"Monitoring and statistical analysis of mine subsidence at three metal mines in China","volume":"78","author":"Hui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.01.023","article-title":"A quantitative assessment of the SBAS algorithm performance for surface deformation retrieval from DInSAR data","volume":"102","author":"Casu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.-R., Lin, C.-W., and Lin, S.-Y. (2021). The use of InSAR phase coherence analyses for the monitoring of aeolian erosion. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13122240"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13998","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-17438-y","article-title":"Use of InSAR data for measuring land subsidence induced by groundwater withdrawal and climate change in Ardabil Plain, Iran","volume":"12","author":"Ghorbani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"71","article-title":"Application of time series InSAR technology in monitoring ground deformation of mining area: A case study at Huolinhe open pit mining area in Inner Mongolia","volume":"33","author":"Hongming","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geol. Hazard Control"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"343","article-title":"Integration of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based photogrammetry and InSAR for mining subsidence and parameters inversion: A case study of the Wangjiata Mine, China","volume":"81","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1080\/22797254.2020.1759455","article-title":"Monitoring mining-induced subsidence by integrating differential radar interferometry and persistent scatterer techniques","volume":"54","author":"Borkowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"177","article-title":"InSAR monitoring of 3-D surface deformation in Jinchuan Mining area, Gansu Province","volume":"34","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"24","article-title":"Sar interferometry for topographic mapping and surface deformation monitoring","volume":"18","author":"Wegmttller","year":"2002","journal-title":"FJP"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1029\/97RG03139","article-title":"Radar interferometry and its application to changes in the Earth\u2019s surface","volume":"36","author":"Massonnet","year":"1998","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1109\/5.838084","article-title":"Synthetic aperture radar interferometry","volume":"88","author":"Rosen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanssen, R.F. (2001). Radar Interferometry: Data Interpretation and Error Analysis, Kluwer Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-47633-9"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1685","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.813278","article-title":"SAR monitoring of progressive and seasonal ground deformation using the permanent scatterers technique","volume":"41","author":"Colesanti","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2737","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.24.002737","article-title":"Phase unwrapping in three dimensions with application to InSAR time series","volume":"24","author":"Hooper","year":"2007","journal-title":"JOSA A"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3289","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.902286","article-title":"Modeling interferogram stacks","volume":"45","author":"Rocca","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, P., Guo, Z., Guo, S., and Xia, J. (2022). Land subsidence monitoring method in regions of variable radar reflection characteristics by integrating PS-InSAR and SBAS-InSAR techniques. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14143265"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geog.2021.09.007","article-title":"Review of the SBAS InSAR Time-series algorithms, applications, and challenges","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geod. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6732","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2022.3198728","article-title":"Time-series analysis and prediction of surface deformation in the Jinchuan mining area, Gansu Province, by using InSAR and CNN\u2013PhLSTM network","volume":"15","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2672876","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/2672876","article-title":"Detecting, Monitoring, and Analyzing the Surface Subsidence in the Yellow River Delta (China) Combined with CenterNet Network and SBAS-InSAR","volume":"2022","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1029\/TR037i003p00287","article-title":"Subsidence of the land surface in the Tulare-Wasco (Delano) and Los Banos-Kettleman City area, San Joaquin Valley, California","volume":"37","author":"Poland","year":"1956","journal-title":"EOS Trans. Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2017.01.011","article-title":"Quantifying groundwater exploitation induced subsidence in the Rafsanjan plain, southeastern Iran, using InSAR time-series and in situ measurements","volume":"218","author":"Motagh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012013","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/266\/1\/012013","article-title":"Groundwater monitoring for evaluating the pasture carrying capacity and its vulnerability in arid and semi-arid regions: A case study of urban and mining areas in Mongolia","volume":"266","author":"Okadera","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"173","article-title":"Land subsidence as a result of sediment consolidation in the Yellow River Delta","volume":"23","author":"Shi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2021.103887","article-title":"Synthesis of the distribution of subsidence of the lower Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, Bangladesh","volume":"224","author":"Steckler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Oyu Tolgoi LLC (2024, March 07). Year in Review 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.ot.mn\/media\/otnew\/content\/reports\/2020_YiR\/20210428_Annual_report_2020-English.pdf."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Oyu Tolgoi LLC (2024, March 07). Year in Review 2022. Available online: https:\/\/www.ot.mn\/media\/otnew\/content\/Year_in_review_2022.pdf."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022EF003465","DOI":"10.1029\/2022EF003465","article-title":"The weight of New York City: Possible contributions to subsidence from anthropogenic sources","volume":"11","author":"Parsons","year":"2023","journal-title":"Earth\u2019s Future"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kratzsch, H. (1983). Mining Subsidence Engineering, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-81923-0"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2024, March 07). Oyu Tolgoi LLC. Available online: https:\/\/www.ot.mn\/media\/otnew\/content\/Water_Audit_report_2021_Final_MNG.pdf."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2020.109404","article-title":"Evaluation of spatio-temporal variations in water availability using a process-based eco-hydrology model in arid and semi-arid regions of Mongolia","volume":"440","author":"Nakayama","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1144\/1470-9236\/07-017","article-title":"A review of international cases of fault reactivation during mining subsidence and fluid abstraction","volume":"42","author":"Donnelly","year":"2009","journal-title":"Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Ferretti, A., Monti-Guarnieri, A., Prati, C., Rocca, F., and Massonet, D. (2007). InSAR Principles: Guideline for SAR Interferometry Processing and Interpretation, ESA Publication."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeps.2015.06.009","article-title":"An Investigation of Sinkhole Subsidence and its Preventive Measures in Underground Coal Mining","volume":"11","author":"Sahu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Procedia Earth Planet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.11.361","article-title":"Changing sediment budget of the Mekong: Cumulative threats and management strategies for a large river basin","volume":"625","author":"Kondolf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112792","article-title":"Land Subsidence and Rebound in the Taiyuan Basin, Northern China, in the Context of Inter-Basin Water Transfer and Groundwater Management","volume":"269","author":"Tang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2166\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:59:09Z","timestamp":1760108349000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2166"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,14]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16122166"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16122166","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,14]]}}}