{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:12:03Z","timestamp":1760145123345,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]],"date-time":"2024-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718755200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52071309","52001296","tsqn 201909053","202065005","862001013102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52071309","52001296","tsqn 201909053","202065005","862001013102"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Taishan Scholars","award":["52071309","52001296","tsqn 201909053","202065005","862001013102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52071309","52001296","tsqn 201909053","202065005","862001013102"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental ResearchFunds for the Central Universities","award":["52071309","52001296","tsqn 201909053","202065005","862001013102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52071309","52001296","tsqn 201909053","202065005","862001013102"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The passive estimation of harmonic sound source depth is of great significance for underwater target localization and identification. Passive source depth estimation using a single hydrophone with an unknown seabed geoacoustic property is a crucial challenge. To address this issue, a harmonic sound source depth estimation algorithm, seabed independent depth estimation (SIDE) algorithm, is proposed. This algorithm combines the estimated mode depth functions, modal amplitudes, and the sign of each modal to estimate the sound source depth. The performance of the SIDE algorithm is analyzed by simulations. Results show that the SIDE is insensitive to the initial range of the sound source, the source depth, the hydrophone depth, the source velocity, and the type of the seabed. Finally, the effectiveness of the SIDE algorithm is verified by the SWellEX-96 data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16122227","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]],"date-time":"2024-06-19T11:47:17Z","timestamp":1718797637000},"page":"2227","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Harmonic Source Depth Estimation by a Single Hydrophone under Unknown Seabed Geoacoustic Property"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Xiaolei","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Technology, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}]},{"given":"Yangjin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Technology, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Technology, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}]},{"given":"Haozhong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Technology, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2909-7320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Technology, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1109\/48.262292","article-title":"An overview of matched field methods in ocean acoustics","volume":"18","author":"Baggeroer","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Tolstoy, A.D. (1993). Matched Field Processing for Underwater Acoustics, World Scientific."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1121\/1.392034","article-title":"Source depth estimation in waveguides","volume":"77","author":"Shang","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.1121\/1.395825","article-title":"A method of range and depth estimation by modal decomposition","volume":"82","author":"Yang","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.1121\/1.405257","article-title":"Comparative performance of matched-mode and matched-field localization in a range-dependent environment","volume":"92","author":"Bogart","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1432982","article-title":"Extraction of acoustic normal mode depth functions using vertical line array data","volume":"111","author":"Neilsen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126002","DOI":"10.1121\/10.0006960","article-title":"Modal wavenumber extraction by finite difference vertical linear array data","volume":"1","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"JASA Express Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65901","DOI":"10.1155\/ASP\/2006\/65901","article-title":"Source depth estimation using a horizontal array by matched-mode processing in the frequency-wavenumber domain","volume":"2006","author":"Nicolas","year":"2006","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le Courtois, F., and Bonnel, J. (2014, January 4\u20139). Wavenumber tracking in a low resolution frequency-wavenumber representation using particle filtering. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2014.6854918"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1121\/1.5000165","article-title":"Source localization in an ocean waveguide using supervised machine learning","volume":"142","author":"Niu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2922","DOI":"10.1121\/1.5036725","article-title":"Source localization using deep neural networks in a shallow water environment","volume":"143","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"EL258","DOI":"10.1121\/1.5126115","article-title":"Sound source ranging using a feed-forward neural network trained with fitting-based early stopping","volume":"146","author":"Chi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"EL363","DOI":"10.1121\/10.0001125","article-title":"Training a U-Net based on a random mode-coupling matrix model to recover acoustic interference striations","volume":"147","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3204","DOI":"10.1121\/10.0006783","article-title":"Introduction to the special issue on machine learning in acoustics","volume":"150","author":"Michalopoulou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S64","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2024333","article-title":"Experimental determination of modal depth functions from covariance matrix eigenfunction analysis","volume":"81","author":"Wolf","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1353592","article-title":"Matched field processing with data-derived modes","volume":"109","author":"Hursky","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4863270","article-title":"Data-based matched-mode source localization for a moving source","volume":"135","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4929748","article-title":"Source depth estimation based on synthetic aperture beamfoming for a moving source","volume":"138","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2022.108723","article-title":"Passive source depth estimation in shallow water using two horizontally separated hydrophones","volume":"192","author":"Zhai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Cui, H. (2023). Research on the Estimation Method of Target Motion Velocity Based on Multi-Modal Doppler. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Ocean University of China]."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2023, June 14). The SWellEX-96 Experiment. Available online: http:\/\/swellex96.ucsd.edu\/."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1121\/1.399949","article-title":"The resolution of modal Doppler shifts in a dispersive oceanic waveguide","volume":"88","author":"Song","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1121\/1.391098","article-title":"Shallow water waveguide characterization using the Hankel transform","volume":"76","author":"Frisk","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3186","DOI":"10.1121\/10.0015403","article-title":"Resolution of matched field processing for a single hydrophone in a rigid waveguide","volume":"152","author":"Cheney","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2227\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:01:11Z","timestamp":1760108471000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2227"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16122227"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16122227","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]]}}}