{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T02:43:06Z","timestamp":1774579386728,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]],"date-time":"2024-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718755200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"International High-Level Forum on Navigation and Location-based Services in Intelligent Era","award":["MCM2020-J-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MCM2020-J-1"]}]},{"name":"International High-Level Forum on Navigation and Location-based Services in Intelligent Era","award":["HB2023B12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HB2023B12"]}]},{"name":"Research on Key Technology of High Precision Positioning","award":["MCM2020-J-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MCM2020-J-1"]}]},{"name":"Research on Key Technology of High Precision Positioning","award":["HB2023B12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HB2023B12"]}]},{"name":"The development strategy of \u201cBeidou + Intelligent Connected Vehicle\u201d integrated with innovative new transportation infrastructure","award":["MCM2020-J-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MCM2020-J-1"]}]},{"name":"The development strategy of \u201cBeidou + Intelligent Connected Vehicle\u201d integrated with innovative new transportation infrastructure","award":["HB2023B12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HB2023B12"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lane-level localization is critical for autonomous vehicles (AVs). However, complex urban scenarios, particularly tunnels, pose significant challenges to AVs\u2019 localization systems. In this paper, we propose a fusion localization method that integrates multiple mass-production sensors, including Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs), Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs), cameras, and high-definition (HD) maps. Firstly, we use a novel electronic horizon module to assess GNSS integrity and concurrently load the HD map data surrounding the AVs. This map data are then transformed into a visual space to match the corresponding lane lines captured by the on-board camera using an improved BiSeNet. Consequently, the matched HD map data are used to correct our localization algorithm, which is driven by an extended Kalman filter that integrates multiple sources of information, encompassing a GNSS, IMU, speedometer, camera, and HD maps. Our system is designed with redundancy to handle challenging city tunnel scenarios. To evaluate the proposed system, real-world experiments were conducted on a 36-kilometer city route that includes nine consecutive tunnels, totaling near 13 km and accounting for 35% of the entire route. The experimental results reveal that 99% of lateral localization errors are less than 0.29 m, and 90% of longitudinal localization errors are less than 3.25 m, ensuring reliable lane-level localization for AVs in challenging urban tunnel scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16122230","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]],"date-time":"2024-06-19T11:47:17Z","timestamp":1718797637000},"page":"2230","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Global Navigation Satellite System\/Inertial Measurement Unit\/Camera\/HD Map Integrated Localization for Autonomous Vehicles in Challenging Urban Tunnel Scenarios"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4502-7031","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu","family":"Tao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Institutes of Innovation for Future Society, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2876-9482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Kefu","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"given":"Jingnan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The GNSS Research Center, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2014.14110","article-title":"Principles of gnss, inertial, and multisensor integrated navigation systems, [book review]","volume":"30","author":"Groves","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. 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