{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,8]],"date-time":"2025-11-08T18:07:55Z","timestamp":1762625275857,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,20]],"date-time":"2024-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Canada Research Chair","award":["CRC 2018-00133","RGPIN-2020-05573","353374"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRC 2018-00133","RGPIN-2020-05573","353374"]}]},{"name":"NSERC Discovery Grant","award":["CRC 2018-00133","RGPIN-2020-05573","353374"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRC 2018-00133","RGPIN-2020-05573","353374"]}]},{"name":"Canada Excellent Research Chair-Global Water Futures (CERC-GWF) Remotely Sensed Monitoring of Northern Lake Ice project","award":["CRC 2018-00133","RGPIN-2020-05573","353374"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRC 2018-00133","RGPIN-2020-05573","353374"]}]},{"name":"Government of Northwest Territories, Environment Climate Change","award":["CRC 2018-00133","RGPIN-2020-05573","353374"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRC 2018-00133","RGPIN-2020-05573","353374"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The seasonal temperature trends and ice phenology in the Great Slave Lake (GSL) are significantly influenced by inflow from the Slave River. The river undergoes a sequence of mechanical break-ups all the way to the GSL, initiating the GSL break-up process. Additionally, upstream water management practices impact the discharge of the Slave River and, consequently, the ice break-up of the GSL. Therefore, monitoring the break-up process at the Slave River Delta (SRD), where the river meets the lake, is crucial for understanding the cascading effects of upstream activities on GSL ice break-up. This research aimed to use Random Forest (RF) models to monitor the ice break-up processes at the SRD using a combination of satellite images with relatively high spatial resolution, including Landsat-5, Landsat-8, Sentinel-2a, and Sentinel-2b. The RF models were trained using selected training pixels to classify ice, open water, and cloud. The onset of break-up was determined by data-driven thresholds on the ice fraction in images with less than 20% cloud coverage. Analysis of break-up timing from 1984 to 2023 revealed a significant earlier trend using the Mann\u2013Kendall test with a p-value of 0.05. Furthermore, break-up data in recent years show a high degree of variability in the break-up rate using images in recent years with better temporal resolution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16122244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,20]],"date-time":"2024-06-20T11:42:03Z","timestamp":1718883723000},"page":"2244","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Assessing Ice Break-Up Trends in Slave River Delta through Satellite Observations and Random Forest Modeling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Ida","family":"Moalemi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Remote Sensing of Environmental Change (ReSEC) Research Group, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada"},{"name":"Cold Regions Research Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2631-0416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Homa","family":"Kheyrollah Pour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Remote Sensing of Environmental Change (ReSEC) Research Group, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada"},{"name":"Cold Regions Research Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada"}]},{"given":"K. Andrea","family":"Scott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.369","article-title":"Climatic control of river-ice hydrology: A review","volume":"16","author":"Prowse","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133310375653","article-title":"The response and role of ice cover in lake-climate interactions","volume":"34","author":"Brown","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0887-381X(2001)15:1(1)","article-title":"River-ice ecology. I: Hydrologic, geomorphic, and water-quality aspects","volume":"15","author":"Prowse","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Cold Reg. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.2166\/nh.2010.142","article-title":"Hydro-ecological effects of changing Arctic River and lake ice covers: A review","volume":"41","author":"Prowse","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12699","article-title":"Ecology under lake ice","volume":"20","author":"Hampton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1002\/lol2.10079","article-title":"A synthesis of carbon dioxide and methane dynamics during the ice-covered period of northern lakes","volume":"3","author":"Denfeld","year":"2018","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1764","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8649.2010.02759.x","article-title":"The influence of changing climate on the ecology and management of selected Laurentian Great Lakes fisheries","volume":"77","author":"Lynch","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Fish Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Barrette, P.D., and Charlebois, L. (2018, January 25). Winter roads and climate adaptation: Prospective solutions through R&D. Proceedings of the Transportation Association of Canada Conference\u2014Innovation and Technology: Evolving Transportation, TAC 2018, Saskatoon, SK, Canada."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00141379","article-title":"Lake ice records used to detect historical and future climatic changes","volume":"21","author":"Robertson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.6131","article-title":"Recent trends in Canadian lake ice cover","volume":"20","author":"Duguay","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4781","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-15-4781-2021","article-title":"Recent changes in pan-Arctic sea ice, lake ice, and snow-on\/off timing","volume":"15","author":"Dauginis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103808","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2023.103808","article-title":"An analysis of ice growth and temperature dynamics in two Canadian subarctic lakes","volume":"210","author":"Rafat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4286","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrc.20312","article-title":"Model-simulated interannual variability of Lake Erie ice cover, circulation, and thermal structure in response to atmospheric forcing, 2003\u20132012","volume":"118","author":"Fujisaki","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cavaliere, E., Fournier, I.B., Hazukov\u00e1, V., Rue, G.P., Sadro, S., Berger, S.A., Cotner, J.B., Dugan, H.A., Hampton, S.E., and Lottig, N.R. (2021). The lake ice continuum concept: Influence of winter conditions on energy and ecosystem dynamics. J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci., 126.","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JG006165"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Mapping snow depth over lake ice in Canada\u2019s sub-arctic using ground-penetrating radar","volume":"2022","author":"Pouw","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cryosphere Discuss."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1","article-title":"Chlorophyll-a growth rates and related environmental variables in global temperate and cold-temperate lakes","volume":"14","author":"Adams","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1986)025<0893:FUABUO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Freeze-up and break-up of lakes as an index of temperature changes during the transition seasons: A case study for Finland","volume":"25","author":"Palecki","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0887-381X(2006)20:4(140)","article-title":"Modeling of lake ice characteristics in North America using climate, geography, and lake bathymetry","volume":"20","author":"Williams","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cold Reg. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.3189\/172756407782871431","article-title":"River-ice break-up\/freeze-up: A review of climatic drivers, historical trends and future predictions","volume":"46","author":"Prowse","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2011.01.004","article-title":"Lake ice phenology of small lakes: Impacts of climate variability in the Great Lakes region","volume":"76","author":"Mishra","year":"2011","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.09.015","article-title":"Analysis of climate change impacts on lake ice phenology in Canada using the historical satellite data record","volume":"106","author":"Latifovic","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Lake Surface Temperature Dataset in the North Slave Region Retrieved from Landsat Satellite Series\u20131984 to 2021","volume":"2022","author":"Attiah","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5956","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2718533","article-title":"Improvement of lake ice thickness retrieval from MODIS satellite data using a thermodynamic model","volume":"55","author":"Duguay","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-10-941-2016","article-title":"Evidence of recent changes in the ice regime of lakes in the Canadian High Arctic from spaceborne satellite observations","volume":"10","author":"Surdu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jglr.2020.08.018","article-title":"Retrieval of ice\/water observations from synthetic aperture radar imagery for use in lake ice data assimilation","volume":"46","author":"Scott","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Great Lakes Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2023.101571","article-title":"Four decades of lake surface temperature in the Northwest Territories, Canada, using a lake-specific satellite-derived dataset","volume":"50","author":"Attiah","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3646","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2018.1447165","article-title":"Icy lakes extraction and water-ice classification using Landsat 8 OLI multispectral data","volume":"39","author":"Barbieux","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00341-8","article-title":"Spectral signature of highly turbid waters: Application with SPOT data to quantify suspended particulate matter concentrations","volume":"81","author":"Doxaran","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.6715","article-title":"Accuracy assessment of the MODIS snow products","volume":"21","author":"Hall","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1461","article-title":"Water body detection and delineation with Landsat TM data","volume":"66","author":"Frazier","year":"2000","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3025","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600589179","article-title":"Modification of normalized difference water index (NDWI) to enhance open water features in remotely sensed imagery","volume":"27","author":"Xu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hollstein, A., Segl, K., Guanter, L., Brell, M., and Enesco, M. (2016). Ready-to-use methods for the detection of clouds, cirrus, snow, shadow, water and clear sky pixels in Sentinel-2 MSI images. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8080666"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112206","article-title":"Assessment of machine learning classifiers for global lake ice cover mapping from MODIS TOA reflectance data","volume":"253","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stonevicius, E., Uselis, G., and Grendaite, D. (2022). Ice detection with Sentinel-1 SAR backscatter threshold in long sections of temperate climate rivers. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14071627"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9548","article-title":"An automated algorithm for river ice monitoring over the Susquehanna River using the MODIS data","volume":"28","author":"Chaouch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-6-235-2012","article-title":"Estimating ice phenology on large northern lakes from AMSR-E: Algorithm development and application to Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake, Canada","volume":"6","author":"Kang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoekstra, M., Jiang, M., Clausi, D.A., and Duguay, C. (2020). Lake ice-water classification of RADARSAT-2 images by integrating IRGS Segmentation with pixel-based random forest labeling. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12091425"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"4202010","article-title":"A Simple method to extract lake ice condition from Landsat images","volume":"60","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3189\/2013AoG62A037","article-title":"Observing lake-and river-ice decay with SAR: Advantages and limitations of the unsupervised k-means classification approach","volume":"54","author":"Sobiech","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7570","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2020.2981082","article-title":"River ice segmentation with deep learning","volume":"58","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"102566","article-title":"A novel method for detecting lake ice cover using optical satellite data","volume":"104","author":"Mattila","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sola, D., and Scott, K.A. (2022). Efficient Shallow Network for River Ice Segmentation. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102378"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2016.01.011","article-title":"Random Forest in remote sensing: A review of applications and future directions","volume":"114","author":"Belgiu","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.842481","article-title":"Investigation of the random forest framework for classification of hyperspectral data","volume":"43","author":"Ham","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JHM977.1","article-title":"An investigation of the thermal and energy balance regimes of Great Slave and Great Bear Lakes","volume":"9","author":"Rouse","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1085(19971030)11:13<1707::AID-HYP600>3.0.CO;2-O","article-title":"Geomorphological and botanical change on the outer Slave River Delta, NWT, before and after impoundment of the Peace River","volume":"11","author":"English","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.09.046","article-title":"Multi-year landscape-scale assessment of lake water balances in the Slave River Delta, NWT, using water isotope tracers","volume":"379","author":"Brock","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2021.103279","article-title":"Climate change impacts on Peace River ice thickness and implications to ice-jam flooding of Peace-Athabasca Delta, Canada","volume":"186","author":"Beltaos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.12.007","article-title":"Variability in ice phenology on great bear lake and great slave lake, northwest territories, canada, from seawinds\/quikscat: 2000\u20132006","volume":"113","author":"Howell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3691","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.1230","article-title":"Simulation of ice phenology on Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada","volume":"16","author":"Duguay","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jglr.2015.12.001","article-title":"Persistent organic contaminants in sediments and biota of Great Slave Lake, Canada: Slave River and long-range atmospheric source influences","volume":"42","author":"Evans","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Great Lakes Res."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"197","article-title":"Interannual Variability of the Thermal Components and Bulk Heat Exchange of Great Slave Lake","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Woo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cold Region Atmospheric and Hydrologic Studies. The Mackenzie GEWEX Experience"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.03.041","article-title":"Integration of space-borne and air-borne data in monitoring river ice processes in the Slave River, Canada","volume":"181","author":"Chu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1002\/ieam.1354","article-title":"Accumulated state assessment of the Peace-Athabasca-Slave River system","volume":"9","author":"Wilson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbr016","article-title":"On the stability and ranking of predictors from random forest variable importance measures","volume":"12","author":"Nicodemus","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Scott, K.A., Ashouri, Z., Buehner, M., Pogson, L., and Carrieres, T. (May, January 29). Assimilation of SAR data in the marginal ice zone. Proceedings of the IEEE Radar Conference (RadarCon13), Ottawa, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masnan, M.J., Mahat, N.I., Shakaff, A.Y.M., Abdullah, A.H., Zakaria, N.Z.I., Yusuf, N., Subari, N., Zakaria, A., and Aziz, A.H.A. (2015, January 15). Understanding Mahalanobis distance criterion for feature selection. Proceedings of the AIP Conference, Penang, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4915708"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chatterjee, S., and Simonoff, J.S. (2013). Handbook of Regression Analysis, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118532843"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1007\/s11135-006-9018-6","article-title":"A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors","volume":"41","year":"2007","journal-title":"Qual. Quant."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(88)90019-3","article-title":"An improved dark-object subtraction technique for atmospheric scattering correction of multispectral data","volume":"24","year":"1988","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"L02207","article-title":"Piecewise linear fitting and trend changing points of climate parameters","volume":"31","author":"Miranda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4058","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7008","article-title":"Spatial and temporal perspectives on spring break-up flooding in the Slave River Delta, NWT","volume":"22","author":"Brock","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1139\/cjce-2014-0377","article-title":"A geospatial model to determine patterns of ice cover breakup along the Slave River","volume":"42","author":"Lindenschmidt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Can. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"Si-S275","DOI":"10.1175\/2016BAMSStateoftheClimate.1","article-title":"State of the climate in 2015","volume":"97","author":"Blunden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"Si-S280","DOI":"10.1175\/2017BAMSStateoftheClimate.1","article-title":"State of the Climate in 2016","volume":"98","author":"Blunden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.1996.41.5.0815","article-title":"Evidence of recent warming and El Ni\u00f1o-related variations in ice breakup of Wisconsin lakes","volume":"41","author":"Anderson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"2784","article-title":"Influence of El Ni\u00f1o on lake and river ice cover in the Northern Hemisphere from 1900 to 1995","volume":"27","author":"Robertson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. Ver. F\u00fcr Theor. Angew. Limnol. Verhandlungen"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1002\/2017RG000560","article-title":"The defining characteristics of ENSO extremes and the strong 2015\/2016 El Ni\u00f1o","volume":"55","author":"Santoso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2244\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:01:45Z","timestamp":1760108505000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/12\/2244"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,20]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16122244"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16122244","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,20]]}}}