{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T13:40:57Z","timestamp":1774964457682,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]],"date-time":"2024-07-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1720656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42275060"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42275060"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["24-ZZCX-JDZ-45"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-ZZCX-JDZ-45"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CX20220046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX20220046"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National University of Defense Technology Independent Innovation Science","award":["42275060"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42275060"]}]},{"name":"National University of Defense Technology Independent Innovation Science","award":["24-ZZCX-JDZ-45"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-ZZCX-JDZ-45"]}]},{"name":"National University of Defense Technology Independent Innovation Science","award":["CX20220046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX20220046"]}]},{"name":"Postgraduate Scientific Research Innovation Project of Hunan Province","award":["42275060"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42275060"]}]},{"name":"Postgraduate Scientific Research Innovation Project of Hunan Province","award":["24-ZZCX-JDZ-45"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-ZZCX-JDZ-45"]}]},{"name":"Postgraduate Scientific Research Innovation Project of Hunan Province","award":["CX20220046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CX20220046"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gravity wave (GW) momentum flux spectra help to uncover the mechanisms through which GWs influence momentum transfer in the atmosphere and provide crucial insights into accurately characterizing atmospheric wave processes. This study examines the momentum flux spectra of GWs in the troposphere (2\u201314 km) and stratosphere (18\u201328 km) over Koror Island (7.2\u00b0N, 134.3\u00b0W) using radiosonde data from 2013\u20132018. Utilizing hodograph analysis and spectral methods, the characteristics of momentum flux spectra are discussed. Given that the zonal momentum flux spectra of low-level atmospheric GWs generally follow a Gaussian distribution, Gaussian fitting was applied to the spectral structures. This fitting further explores the seasonal variations of the zonal momentum flux spectra and the average spectral parameters for each month. Additionally, the GW energy is analyzed using SABER (Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry) satellite data and compared with the results of the momentum flux spectra from radiosonde data, revealing the close negative correlation between wave energy and wave momentum for stratospheric GW changing with time. The findings indicate that the Gaussian peak shifts more eastward in both the troposphere and stratosphere, primarily due to the absorption of eastward-propagating GWs by the winter tropospheric westerly jet and critical layer filtering. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) in the stratosphere is larger than in the troposphere, especially in June and July, as the spectrum broadens due to propagation effects, filtering, and interactions among waves. The central phase speed in the stratosphere exceeds that in the troposphere, reflecting the influences of Doppler effects and background wind absorption. The momentum flux in the stratosphere is lower than in the troposphere, which is attributed to jet absorption, partial reflection, or the dissipation of GWs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16142550","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]],"date-time":"2024-07-11T11:33:22Z","timestamp":1720697602000},"page":"2550","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Study on the Momentum Flux Spectrum of Gravity Waves in the Tropical Western Pacific Based on Integrated Satellite Remote Sensing and In Situ Observations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Zhimeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of Meteorology and Oceanography, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410005, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0025-3193","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Aviation Meteorological Institute, Beijing 100085, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuyang","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of Meteorology and Oceanography, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410005, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zheng","family":"Sheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of Meteorology and Oceanography, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410005, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj1965.60.1_215","article-title":"A quasi one-dimensional model of the middle atmosphere circulation interacting with internal gravity-waves","volume":"60","author":"Matsuno","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1029\/2019RG000668","article-title":"Ionospheric Detection of Natural Hazards","volume":"57","author":"Astafyeva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-021-1110-2","article-title":"Atmospheric Disturbance Characteristics in the Lower-middle Stratosphere Inferred from Observations by the Round-Trip Intelligent Sounding System (RTISS) in China","volume":"39","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fritts, D.C., and Alexander, M.J. (2003). Gravity wave dynamics and effects in the middle atmosphere. Rev. Geophys., 41.","DOI":"10.1029\/2001RG000106"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1652","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS3897.1","article-title":"Using satellite observations to constrain parameterizations of gravity wave effects for global models","volume":"64","author":"Alexander","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10275","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD900847","article-title":"Wavelet analysis of stratospheric gravity wave packets over Macquarie Island: 1. Wave parameters","volume":"106","author":"Zink","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meriwether, J.W., and Gerrard, A.J. (2004). Mesosphere inversion layers and stratosphere temperature enhancements. Rev. Geophys., 42.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003RG000133"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3581","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2001)058<3581:TGWASV>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The gravity wave\u2013Arctic stratospheric vortex interaction","volume":"58","author":"Duck","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1029\/RS025i005p01005","article-title":"Gravity waves in the mesosphere observed with the middle and upper atmosphere radar","volume":"25","author":"Tsuda","year":"1990","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"4161","article-title":"Mountain wave turbulence and its impact on aircraft","volume":"57","author":"Alexander","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3839","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-24-3839-2024","article-title":"Identification of stratospheric disturbance information in China based on the round-trip intelligent sounding system","volume":"24","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Xiong, J., Liu, L., and Wan, W. (2012). A global morphology of gravity wave activity in the stratosphere revealed by the 8-year SABER\/TIMED data. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JD017676"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Holton, J.R. (2004). An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, Elsevier Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"91","article-title":"Polynomial fitting for extracting gravity wave parameters from radiosonde data","volume":"173","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1233","article-title":"Application of third-order polynomial fitting for background wind profiles in gravity wave studies","volume":"11","author":"Yoo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"646","article-title":"Fourth-order polynomial fitting in gravity wave studies using radiosonde data","volume":"23","author":"Pramitha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Meteorol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4489","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD002786","article-title":"Morphology of gravity wave energy as observed from four years of high vertical resolution US. radiosonde data","volume":"108","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1029\/94JD02688","article-title":"Gravity wave activity in the lower atmosphere: Seasonal and latitudinal variations","volume":"100","author":"Allen","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1958","article-title":"The interaction between the QBO and the solar cycle in the stratosphere in observations and models","volume":"142","author":"Osprey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2022JD037208","article-title":"Observations of Inertia Gravity Waves in the Western Pacific and Their Characteristic in the 2015\/2016 Quasi-Biennial Oscillation disruption","volume":"127","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fueglistaler, S., Dessler, A.E., Dunkerton, T.J., Folkins, I., Fu, Q., and Mote, P.W. (2009). Tropical tropopause layer. Rev. Geophys., 47.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008RG000267"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/0273-1177(90)90389-H","article-title":"Seasonal and latitudinal variations of gravity waves","volume":"10","author":"Horota","year":"1990","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17229","DOI":"10.1029\/91JD01662","article-title":"Seasonal variability of gravity-wave activity and spectra in the mesopause region at Urbana","volume":"96","author":"Senft","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1533","article-title":"Influence of nonlinear wave\u2013mean-flow interactions on gravity wave momentum fluxes and wave breaking","volume":"58","author":"Richter","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexander, M.J., and Rosenlof, K.H. (2003). Gravity-wave forcing in the stratosphere: Observational constraints from the upper atmosphere research satellite and implications for parameterization in global models. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 108.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JD003373"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6231","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JD026604","article-title":"Variations of global gravity waves derived from 14 years of SABER temperature observations","volume":"122","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-012-1329-9","article-title":"TIMED\/SABER observations of global gravity wave climatology and their interannual variability from stratosphere to mesosphere lower thermosphere","volume":"39","author":"John","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, Y., He, Y., and Leng, H. (2024). Analysis of Atmospheric Elements in Near Space Based on Meteorological-Rocket Soundings over the East China Sea. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16020402"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/14\/2550\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:15:11Z","timestamp":1760109311000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/14\/2550"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16142550"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16142550","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]]}}}