{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:17:39Z","timestamp":1760145459794,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]],"date-time":"2024-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722470400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Foundation of Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province","award":["AHL2022QN02","AHL 2021QN01","YZJJ2023QN07","2008085j19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AHL2022QN02","AHL 2021QN01","YZJJ2023QN07","2008085j19"]}]},{"name":"HFIPS Director\u2019s Fund","award":["AHL2022QN02","AHL 2021QN01","YZJJ2023QN07","2008085j19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AHL2022QN02","AHL 2021QN01","YZJJ2023QN07","2008085j19"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Provincial Natural Science Foundation","award":["AHL2022QN02","AHL 2021QN01","YZJJ2023QN07","2008085j19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AHL2022QN02","AHL 2021QN01","YZJJ2023QN07","2008085j19"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Analysis of turbulent heat fluxes in urban forests is crucial for understanding structural variations in the urban sub-surface boundary layer. This study used data captured by an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and an improved semi-empirical triangle method to estimate small-scale turbulent heat fluxes in the sub-surface of an urban forest. To improve the estimation accuracy, the surface temperature (TS) of the UAV-based remote sensing inversion was corrected using the hot and cold spot correction method, and the process of calculating \u03d5max using the traditional semi-empirical triangle method was improved to simplify the calculation process and reduce the number of parameters in the model. Based on this method, latent heat fluxes (LE) and sensible heat fluxes (H) were obtained with a horizontal resolution of 0.13 m at different time points in the study area. A comparison and validation with the measured values of the eddy covariance (EC) system showed that the absolute error of the LE estimates ranged from 4.43 to 23.11 W\/m2, the relative error ranged from 4.57% to 25.33%, the correlation coefficient (r) with the measured values was 0.95, and the root mean square error (RMSE) was 35.96 W\/m2, while the absolute error of the H estimates ranged from 3.42 to 15.45 W\/m2, the relative error ranged from 7.51% to 28.65%, r was 0.91, and RMSE was 9.77 W\/m2. Compared to the traditional triangle method, the r of LE was improved by 0.04, while that of H was improved by 0.06, and the improved triangle method was more accurate in estimating the heat fluxes of urban mixed forest ecosystems in the region. Using this method, it was possible to accurately track the LE and H of individual trees at the leaf level.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16152830","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]],"date-time":"2024-08-01T15:26:53Z","timestamp":1722526013000},"page":"2830","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Based Estimation of Turbulent Heat Fluxes in the Sub-Surface of Urban Forests Using an Improved Semi-Empirical Triangle Method"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Changyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"},{"name":"School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Anhui Jianzhu University, Hefei 230009, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}]},{"given":"Shumei","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Anhui Jianzhu University, Hefei 230009, China"}]},{"given":"Kaixuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1041-7148","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuebin","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7251-0478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}]},{"given":"Xuebin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9959-2453","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tao","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2017.07.009","article-title":"Experimental Studies on the Effects of Green Space and Evapotranspiration on Urban Heat Island in a Subtropical Megacity in China","volume":"68","author":"Qiu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2023GL105698","DOI":"10.1029\/2023GL105698","article-title":"Surface Turbulent Fluxes From the MOSAiC Campaign Predicted by Machine Learning","volume":"50","author":"Cummins","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geophys. 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