{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,25]],"date-time":"2026-04-25T14:42:28Z","timestamp":1777128148949,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,4]],"date-time":"2024-08-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722729600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To meet the requirement of autonomous driving development, high-quality point cloud generation of the environment has become the focus of 4D mmWave radar development. On the basis of mass producibility and physical verifiability, a design method for improving the quality and density of point cloud imagery is proposed in this paper, including antenna design, array design, and the dynamic detection method. The utilization of apertures is promoted through antenna design and sparse MIMO array optimization using the genetic algorithm (GA). The hybrid strategy for complex point clouds is adopted using the proposed dynamic CFAR algorithm, which enables dynamic adjustment of the threshold by discriminating and calculating different scanning regions. The effectiveness of the proposed method is verified by simulations and practical experiments. Aiming at system manufacture, analysis methods for the ambiguity function (AF) and shooting and bouncing rays (SBR) tracing are introduced, and an mmWave radar system is realized based on the proposed method, with its performance proven by practical experiments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16152856","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,5]],"date-time":"2024-08-05T11:28:54Z","timestamp":1722857334000},"page":"2856","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["A Point Cloud Improvement Method for High-Resolution 4D mmWave Radar Imagery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Qingmian","family":"Wan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Department of Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hongli","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Department of Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xing","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Department of Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weihao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Department of Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kuayue","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Department of Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junfa","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Radio Frequency Heterogeneous Integration, Department of Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3258688","article-title":"4D High-resolution imagery of point clouds for automotive MmWave radar","volume":"25","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciattaglia, G., De Santis, A., Disha, D., Spinsante, S., Castellini, P., and Gambi, E. (2020). Performance Evaluation of Vibrational Measurements through mmWave Automotive Radars. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13010098"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13167","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3004065","article-title":"Frequency-diverse computational automotive radar technique for debris detection","volume":"20","author":"Yurduseven","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tebaldini, S., Manzoni, M., Tagliaferri, D., Rizzi, M., Monti-Guarnieri, A.V., Prati, C.M., Spagnolini, U., Nicoli, M., Russo, I., and Mazzucco, C. (2022). Sensing the Urban Environment by Automotive SAR Imaging: Potentials and Challenges. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14153602"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTSP.2021.3063666","article-title":"Automotive radar signal processing: Research directions and practical challenges","volume":"15","author":"Engels","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14276","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3276798","article-title":"A Simulation Method for Millimeter-wave Radar Sensing in Traffic Intersection Based on Bidirectional Analytical Ray Tracing Algorithm","volume":"23","author":"Zong","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167959","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3137387","article-title":"Signal processing for TDM MIMO FMCW millimeter-wave radar sensors","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, M., Xu, G., Pei, H., Zhang, H., and Guo, K. (2022, January 25\u201329). High-resolution automotive radar point cloud imaging and processing. Proceedings of the 2022 Photonics & Electromagnetics Research Symposium (PIERS), Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIERS55526.2022.9792662"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2806","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2019.2958193","article-title":"High resolution FDMA MIMO radar","volume":"56","author":"Cohen","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTSP.2022.3207902","article-title":"Multi-channel back-projection algorithm for mmwave automotive MIMO SAR imaging with Doppler-division multiplexing","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sit, Y.L., Li, G., Manchala, S., Afrasiabi, H., Sturm, C., and Lubbert, U. (2018, January 26\u201328). BPSK-based MIMO FMCW automotive-radar concept for 3D position measurement. Proceedings of the 2018 15th European Radar Conference (EuRAD), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.23919\/EuRAD.2018.8546657"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2020.3016876","article-title":"CDMA-MIMO radar with the tansec waveform","volume":"57","author":"Solodky","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59716","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2912169","article-title":"Generalized three-dimensional imaging algorithms for synthetic aperture radar with metamaterial apertures-based antenna","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2891","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2022.3216013","article-title":"Area-based cfar target detection for automotive millimeter-wave radar","volume":"72","author":"Wei","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12229","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2021.3111514","article-title":"CFAR-based interference mitigation for FMCW automotive radar systems","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1","article-title":"Improved CFAR detection and direction finding on time\u2013frequency plane with high-frequency radar","volume":"19","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78538","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3280544","article-title":"A Novel Method for Improving Point Cloud Accuracy in Automotive Radar Object Recognition","volume":"11","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2014.2362491","article-title":"Harmonic estimation using symmetrical interpolation FFT based on triangular self-convolution window","volume":"11","author":"Wen","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1109\/8.320744","article-title":"Two-dimensional superresolution radar imaging using the MUSIC algorithm","volume":"42","author":"Odendaal","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1109\/29.32276","article-title":"ESPRIT-estimation of signal parameters via rotational invariance techniques","volume":"37","author":"Roy","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, W., Li, Y., Li, S., Zhang, F., and Wang, K. (2021, January 22\u201324). Efficient FFT based multi source DOA estimation for ULA. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 6th International Conference on Signal and Image Processing (ICSIP), Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSIP52628.2021.9688584"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2016.2628914","article-title":"Automotive radars: A review of signal processing techniques","volume":"34","author":"Patole","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process Mag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2023.3343688","article-title":"Antenna Array and Waveform Design for 4-D-Imaging mmWave MIMO Radar Sensors","volume":"60","author":"Mehrshahi","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusu, R.B., and Cousins, S. (2011, January 9\u201313). 3d is here: Point cloud library (pcl). Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2011.5980567"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vishnubhatla, A. (2020). Automotive Radar Using awr2243 Booster Pack, International Association of Online Engineering.","DOI":"10.3991\/ijoe.v16i15.19011"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Ma, L., Yu, X., Zhang, H., Li, J., and Xi, X. (2021, January 18\u201320). MIMO Antenna Array Design Based on Genetic Algorithm. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 4th International Conference on Electronic Information and Communication Technology (ICEICT), Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEICT53123.2021.9531259"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1968.1139138","article-title":"Minimum-redundancy linear arrays","volume":"16","author":"Moffet","year":"1968","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lange, O., and Yang, B. (2011, January 24\u201325). Antenna geometry optimization for 2D direction-of-arrival estimation for radar imaging. Proceedings of the 2011 International ITG Workshop on Smart Antennas, Aachen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/WSA.2011.5741909"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4604","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2020.2972643","article-title":"2-D MIMO radar: A method for array performance assessment and design of a planar antenna array","volume":"68","author":"Roos","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwiatkowski, P., Orth, A., Piotrowsky, L., and Pohl, N. (2022, January 28\u201330). A 77\u201381 GHz FMCW MIMO Radar with Linear Virtual Array Enabling 3D Target Localization by Use of Frequency-Steered TX Antennas. Proceedings of the 2022 19th European Radar Conference (EuRAD), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.23919\/EuRAD54643.2022.9924778"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Wang, Y., and Chen, H. (2023). Efficient Implementation for SBL-Based Coherent Distributed mmWave Radar Imaging. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15041054"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2775","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2022.3151633","article-title":"High-resolution phased-subarray MIMO radar with grating lobe cancellation technique","volume":"70","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15242","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3244137","article-title":"High Fidelity Physics-Based Simulation of a 512-Channel 4D-Radar Sensor for Automotive Applications","volume":"11","author":"Chipengo","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Ansys Inc. (2024, July 20). Ansys HFSS 15.0 Online Help System. Available online: http:\/\/www.mweda.com\/hfss\/hfss15\/index.html."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/15\/2856\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:29:57Z","timestamp":1760110197000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/15\/2856"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,4]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16152856"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16152856","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,4]]}}}