{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T04:09:41Z","timestamp":1773202181623,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,8]],"date-time":"2024-08-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1723075200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41931075"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41931075"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41961144015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41961144015"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["GCSYJH24-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GCSYJH24-21"]}]},{"name":"Observational Experiment Project of Meteorological Observation. Center of China Meteorological Administration","award":["41931075"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41931075"]}]},{"name":"Observational Experiment Project of Meteorological Observation. Center of China Meteorological Administration","award":["41961144015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41961144015"]}]},{"name":"Observational Experiment Project of Meteorological Observation. Center of China Meteorological Administration","award":["GCSYJH24-21"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GCSYJH24-21"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The accurate measurement of water vapor is essential for research about and the applications of meteorology, climatology, and hydrology. Based on the BeiDou PPP-B2b service, real-time precipitable water vapor (PWV) can be retrieved with the precise point positioning (PPP) software (XTW-PPP version 0.0). The experiment was conducted in Beijing in January 2023. Three solutions were designed with PPP using the BeiDou system only, the GPS system only, and the BeiDou-GPS combined solution. Real-time PWVs for the three solutions were validated with the ERA5 reanalysis data. Between the PWV values from the single BeiDou and ERA5, there was a bias of 0.7 mm and an RMSE of 1.8 mm. For the GPS case, the bias was 0.73 mm and the RMSE was 1.97 mm. The biases were less than 1 mm and RMSEs were less than 2 mm. Both the BeiDou and the GPS processing performed very well. But little improvement was found for the BeiDou-GPS combined solution, compared with the BeiDou system-only and the GPS system-only solution. This may be due to the poor handling of two different kinds of errors for the GPS and the BeiDou systems in our PPP software. A better PWV estimation with the two systems is to estimate PWV with a single system at the first step and then obtain the optimization by Bayesian model averaging.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16162902","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,8]],"date-time":"2024-08-08T12:13:14Z","timestamp":1723119194000},"page":"2902","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Performance of Ground-Based Global Navigation Satellite System Precipitable Water Vapor Retrieval in Beijing with the BeiDou B2b Service"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Yunchang","family":"Cao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Observation Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Zhenhua","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Observation Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"Guangxi Meteorological Technology and Equipment Center, Nanning 530022, China"}]},{"given":"Jingshu","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Observation Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Panpan","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Observation Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9702-0507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yucan","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronic and Information Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China"}]},{"given":"Yizhu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Observation Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"},{"name":"Guangxi Meteorological Technology and Equipment Center, Nanning 530022, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1194","article-title":"Report of the First Prospectus Development Team of the U.S. Weather Research Program to NOAA and the NSF","volume":"76","author":"Emanuel","year":"1995","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-85-2-253","article-title":"An Overview of the International H2O Project (IHOP_2002) and Some Preliminary Highlights","volume":"85","author":"Weckwerth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4891","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2020.2968124","article-title":"An improved rainfall forecasting model based on GNSS observations","volume":"58","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15787","DOI":"10.1029\/92JD01517","article-title":"GPS meteorology: Remote sensing of atmospheric water vapor using the global positioning system","volume":"97","author":"Bevis","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1995)012<0468:GSOAWV>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"GPS\/STORMGPS sensing of atmospheric water vapor for meteorology","volume":"12","author":"Rocken","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2000)017<0426:DAOSBG>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Development of the NOAA\/ERL Ground-Based GPS Water Vapor Demonstration Network: Design and initial results","volume":"17","author":"Wolfe","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/S1464-1895(01)00075-8","article-title":"Near real-time water vapor estimation in a German GPS network-first results from the ground program of the HGF GASP project","volume":"26","author":"Gendt","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Part A Solid Earth Geod."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"565","article-title":"Advances in Ground-based and Space-borne GPS Meteorology","volume":"27","author":"Cao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trans. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"511","article-title":"Systematic Errors and Their Calibrations for Precipitable Water Vapor of L-Band Radiosonde","volume":"45","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meteor. Mon."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"795","article-title":"Systematic Errors and Their Calibrations for Radiosonde Precipitable Water Vapor on the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"36","author":"Liang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chin. J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"595","article-title":"Validation and Application of FY-2H Total Precipitable Water Products in the Belt and Road Region","volume":"48","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Meteorol. Mon."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teunissen, P.J., and Montenbruck, O. (2017). Orbit and clock product generation. Springer Handbook of Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-42928-1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5005","DOI":"10.1029\/96JB03860","article-title":"Precise Point Positioning For The Efficient And Robust Analysis Of GPS Data From Large Networks","volume":"102","author":"Zumberge","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s43020-020-00025-9","article-title":"Global capabilities of BeiDou navigation satellite system","volume":"1","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Satell. Navig."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0834-2","article-title":"Prediction versus real-time orbit determination for GNSS satellites","volume":"23","author":"Duan","year":"2019","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-018-1138-y","article-title":"Improving multi-GNSS ultrarapid orbit determination for real-time precise point positioning","volume":"93","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-018-1144-0","article-title":"Precise orbit determination for BDS3 experimental satellites using iGMAS and MGEX tracking networks","volume":"93","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-022-01252-0","article-title":"An efficient method for undiferenced BDS-2\/BDS-3 high-rate clock estimation","volume":"26","author":"Cao","year":"2022","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s43020-022-00066-2","article-title":"Principle and performance of BDSBAS and PPP-B2b of BDS-3","volume":"3","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Satell Navig."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s43020-020-00019-7","article-title":"Uncombined precise orbit and clock determination of GPS and BDS-3","volume":"1","author":"Zeng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Satell Navig."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.108871","article-title":"An analysis of BDS-3 real-time PPP: Time transfer, positioning, and tropospheric delay retrieval","volume":"172","author":"Ge","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiao, G., Song, S., Liu, Y., Su, K., Cheng, N., and Wang, S. (2020). Analysis and assessment of BDS-2 and BDS-3 broadcast ephemeris: Accuracy, the datum of broadcast clocks and its impact on single point positioning. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12132081"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0948-6","article-title":"Evaluation of PPP-RTK based on BDS-3\/BDS-2\/GPS observations: A case study in Europe","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-020-00995-y","article-title":"Assessment of BDS-3 global positioning service: Ephemeris, SPP, PPP, RTK, and new signal","volume":"24","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109355","article-title":"Modeling of BDS-2\/BDS-3 single-frequency PPP with B1I and B1C signals and positioning performance analysis","volume":"178","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ge, Y., Cao, X., Shen, F., Yang, X., and Wang, S. (2021). BDS-3\/Galileo time and frequency transfer with quad-frequency precise point positioning. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13142704"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065023","DOI":"10.1088\/1681-7575\/abbcc1","article-title":"Analysis on the time transfer performance of BDS-3 signals","volume":"57","author":"Guang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Metrologia"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, X., Shen, F., Lu, X., Shen, P., and Ge, Y. (2021). Performance of BDS-2\/3, GPS, and galileo time transfer with real-time single-frequency precise point positioning. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13214192"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2019.11.006","article-title":"Initial accuracy and reliability of current BDS-3 precise positioning, velocity estimation, and time transfer (PVT)","volume":"65","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1029\/GL017i005p00651","article-title":"Geodetic point positioning with GPS carrier beat phase data from the CASA UNO experiment","volume":"17","author":"Malys","year":"1990","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"64","article-title":"Accuracy evaluation of BeiDou-3 PPP-B2b signal","volume":"48","author":"Cai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Glob. Position. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"279","article-title":"Contributions to theory of atmospheric refraction","volume":"105","author":"Saastamoinen","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.828","article-title":"The ERA-Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system","volume":"137","author":"Dee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"7","article-title":"ERA5 Reanalysis Is in Production","volume":"147","author":"Hersbach","year":"2016","journal-title":"ECMWF Newsl."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26917","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD900362","article-title":"Comparisons of GPS-derived precipitable water vapors with radiosonde observations in Japan","volume":"105","author":"Ohtani","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"78","article-title":"Applicability Analysis of ERA5 Reanalysis Surface Air Temperature Data in China","volume":"39","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Trop. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"36","article-title":"Preliminarily Comparative Study on the Applicability of ERA5 and ERA5-Land Ground Wind Speed Data over China\u2019s Land Region","volume":"29","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clim. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geog.2015.03.001","article-title":"Meteorological applications of precipitable water vapor measurements retrieved by the national GNSS network of China","volume":"6","author":"Liang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geod. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR2906.1","article-title":"Using Bayesian model averaging to calibrate forecast ensembles","volume":"133","author":"Raftery","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/16\/2902\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:32:16Z","timestamp":1760110336000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/16\/2902"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,8]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16162902"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16162902","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,8]]}}}