{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T09:13:00Z","timestamp":1773738780395,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,12]],"date-time":"2024-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1723420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFE0117300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFE0117300"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41874174"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874174"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["59236"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["59236"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"NSFC","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023YFE0117300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFE0117300"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"NSFC","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41874174"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874174"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"NSFC","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["59236"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["59236"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"APSCO Earthquake Research Project Phase II","award":["2023YFE0117300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFE0117300"]}]},{"name":"APSCO Earthquake Research Project Phase II","award":["41874174"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874174"]}]},{"name":"APSCO Earthquake Research Project Phase II","award":["59236"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["59236"]}]},{"name":"Dragon 5 cooperation 2020\u20132024","award":["2023YFE0117300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023YFE0117300"]}]},{"name":"Dragon 5 cooperation 2020\u20132024","award":["41874174"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41874174"]}]},{"name":"Dragon 5 cooperation 2020\u20132024","award":["59236"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["59236"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The occurrence of space weather events, notably geomagnetic storms driven by various solar wind structures, can significantly alter Earth\u2019s electromagnetic environment. In this study, we examined the interplanetary origins and statistical distribution of 384 geomagnetic storms (Dstmin\u00a0\u2264 \u221250 nT) that occurred from September 1996 to December 2023. We statistically analyzed the correlations between storm intensity and solar wind parameters (SWPs) across different subsets. The results indicate that (1) the solar activity level, indicated by the sunspot number (SSN), and the number of geomagnetic storms during the first four years of the 25th solar cycle were intermediate, compared to the first four years of the 23rd and 24th solar cycles. Specifically, ICME-related structures caused 80% of the strong storms (Dstmin\u00a0\u2264 \u2212100 nT) and 34% of the moderate storms (\u2212100 nT &lt; Dstmin\u00a0\u2264 \u221250 nT) from 2020 to 2023. (2) The storm intensity correlated with the peak and\/or time-integral values of the southward interplanetary magnetic field (IMF Bs), the dawn\u2013dusk electric field (Ey), the Akasofu\u2019s function (\u03b5), and dynamic pressure (Psw) to varying extents. Strong storms exhibited higher correlation levels than moderate ones and ICME-related storms showed larger correlation levels compared to those driven by other sources. (3) Compared with the storms from 1996-09 to 2000-08, the storms that occurred from 2020 to 2023 had lower correlations with the peak values of the IMF Bs and Ey but higher correlations with the peak value of \u03b5 and the time-integral values of the IMF Bs, Ey, Psw, and \u03b5. (4) Among the 174 events that featured continuous southward IMF during the storm\u2019s main phase, the duration of southward IMF during about 66.7% of moderate storms and 51.5% of strong storms were less than 13 h. Continuous southward IMF resulted in more direct and efficient energy coupling, enhancing the correlation between the peak values of SWPs and storm intensity but weakening the relationships with the time-integral values of SWPs. Notably, when the southward IMF persisted for a longer duration (e.g., \u2206t &gt; 13 h), the continuous energy input further enhanced correlations with both peak and integral values of SWPs, leading to stronger overall correlations with storm intensity. This analysis sheds light on the intricate relationships between geomagnetic storms and their solar wind drivers, emphasizing the significant influence of ICME-related structures and the duration of southward IMF on storm intensity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16162952","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,12]],"date-time":"2024-08-12T10:34:59Z","timestamp":1723458899000},"page":"2952","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Statistical Analysis of the Correlation between Geomagnetic Storm Intensity and Solar Wind Parameters from 1996 to 2023"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Xiaoying","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Natural Hazards, Ministry of Emergency Management of China, Beijing 100085, China"}]},{"given":"Zeren","family":"Zhima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Natural Hazards, Ministry of Emergency Management of China, Beijing 100085, China"}]},{"given":"Suping","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5264-0865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunpeng","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Space and Environment, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Natural Hazards, Ministry of Emergency Management of China, Beijing 100085, China"},{"name":"School of Emergency Management Science and Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Zilin","family":"Ran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Natural Hazards, Ministry of Emergency Management of China, Beijing 100085, China"},{"name":"School of Emergency Management Science and Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5771","DOI":"10.1029\/93JA02867","article-title":"What is a geomagnetic storm?","volume":"99","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamide, Y., and Chian, A. (2007). Geomagnetic Storms. Handbook of the Solar-Terrestrial Environment, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-46315-3"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-00319-6_13","article-title":"Magnetospheric Storms and Substorms","volume":"Volume 56","author":"Koskinen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Physics of Space Storms: From the Solar Surface to the Earth"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Zhang, X. (2015). Source, Evolution, and Properties of Non-Parker-spiral IMF and Its Role on Geomagnetic Activity. [Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Michigan]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.6.47","article-title":"Interplanetary Magnetic Field and the Auroral Zones","volume":"6","author":"Dungey","year":"1961","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazar, M. (2012). Turbulence in the magnetosheath and the problem of plasma penetration inside the magnetosphere. Exploring the Solar Wind, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/2079"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"A12213","article-title":"Reliability of prediction of the magnetosheath BZ component from interplanetary magnetic field observations","volume":"114","author":"Hayosh","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-32-1247-2014","article-title":"Magnetic clouds\u2019 structure in the magnetosheath as observed by Cluster and Geotail: Four case studies","volume":"32","author":"Turc","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00218810","article-title":"Energy coupling between the solar wind and the magnetosphere","volume":"28","author":"Akasofu","year":"1981","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"18","article-title":"A Review of the Current Understanding in the Study of Geomagnetic Storms","volume":"4","author":"Akasofu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Earth Sci. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1139\/p61-172","article-title":"A unifying theory of high latitude geophysical phenomena and geomagnetic storms","volume":"39","author":"Axford","year":"1961","journal-title":"Can. J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"171","article-title":"A new theory of magnetic storms","volume":"36","author":"Chapman","year":"1931","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A05106","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JA016490","article-title":"Energy transfer during intense geomagnetic storms driven by interplanetary coronal mass ejections and their sheath regions","volume":"116","author":"Guo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2009.02.005","article-title":"Geoefficiency and energy partitioning in CIR-driven and CME-driven storms","volume":"71","author":"Turner","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-021-00806-x","article-title":"Shock Induced Strong Substorms and Super Substorms: Preconditions and Associated Oxygen Ion Dynamics","volume":"217","author":"Zong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23397","DOI":"10.1029\/95JA02684","article-title":"Regions of abnormally low proton temperature in the solar wind (1965\u20131991) and their association with ejecta","volume":"100","author":"Richardson","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-010-9684-3","article-title":"Statistical Comparison of Magnetic Clouds with Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections for Solar Cycle 23","volume":"269","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7217","DOI":"10.1029\/JA093iA07p07217","article-title":"Magnetic clouds and force-free fields with constant alpha","volume":"93","author":"Burlaga","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11189","DOI":"10.1029\/JA092iA10p11189","article-title":"Solar cycle invariance in solar wind proton temperature relationships","volume":"92","author":"Lopez","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"A09104","article-title":"Identification of interplanetary coronal mass ejections at 1 AU using multiple solar wind plasma composition anomalies","volume":"109","author":"Richardson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-011-9737-2","article-title":"Comparing Solar Minimum 23\/24 with Historical Solar Wind Records at 1 AU","volume":"274","author":"Jian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-010-9568-6","article-title":"Near-Earth Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections During Solar Cycle 23 (1996\u2009\u2013\u20092009): Catalog and Summary of Properties","volume":"264","author":"Richardson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5931","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JA023768","article-title":"Statistical comparison of the ICME\u2019s geoeffectiveness of different types and different solar phases from 1995 to 2014","volume":"122","author":"Shen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"A07S05","article-title":"Geoeffectiveness of corotating interaction regions as measured by Dst index","volume":"111","author":"Alves","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1134\/S0016793219010055","article-title":"Solar Wind Streams of Different Types and High-Latitude Substorms","volume":"59","author":"Despirak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geomagn. Aeron."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"A07S01","article-title":"Corotating solar wind streams and recurrent geomagnetic activity: A review","volume":"111","author":"Tsurutani","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2010.04.001","article-title":"A review of interplanetary discontinuities and their geomagnetic effects","volume":"73","author":"Tsurutani","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. -Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"A12103","article-title":"Correction to \u201cSolar and interplanetary sources of major geomagnetic storms (Dst \u2264 \u2212100 nT) during 1996\u20132005\u201d","volume":"112","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7831","DOI":"10.1029\/91JA00316","article-title":"Geomagnetic activity associated with earth passage of interplanetary shock disturbances and coronal mass ejections","volume":"96","author":"Gosling","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-015-0806-9","article-title":"Relationships Among Geomagnetic Storms, Interplanetary Shocks, Magnetic Clouds, and Sunspot Number During 1995\u20132012","volume":"291","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2419","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-016-0971-5","article-title":"Statistical Study of the Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections from 1995 to 2015","volume":"291","author":"Chi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L09808","DOI":"10.1029\/2003GL019199","article-title":"Geoeffectiveness of interplanetary shocks, magnetic clouds, sector boundary crossings and their combined occurrence","volume":"31","author":"Echer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JA018086","article-title":"Interplanetary origins of moderate (\u2212100 nT < Dst \u2264 \u221250 nT) geomagnetic storms during solar cycle 23 (1996\u20132008)","volume":"118","author":"Echer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8519","DOI":"10.1029\/JA093iA08p08519","article-title":"Origin of interplanetary southward magnetic fields responsible for major magnetic storms near solar maximum (1978\u20131979)","volume":"93","author":"Tsurutani","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1134\/S0010952509020014","article-title":"Catalog of large-scale solar wind phenomena during 1976\u20132000","volume":"47","author":"Yermolaev","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cosm. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"A07S08","article-title":"Differences between CME-driven storms and CIR-driven storms","volume":"111","author":"Borovsky","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50138","article-title":"Effects of different geomagnetic storm drivers on the ring current: CRCM results","volume":"118","author":"Cramer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A00L07","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JA017139","article-title":"Geoeffectiveness and efficiency of CIR, sheath, and ICME in generation of magnetic storms","volume":"117","author":"Yermolaev","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"SMP-20","article-title":"Variability of magnetospheric storms driven by different solar wind perturbations","volume":"107","author":"Huttunen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L06S03","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GL031755","article-title":"Interplanetary conditions leading to superintense geomagnetic storms (Dst \u2264 \u2212250 nT) during solar cycle 23","volume":"35","author":"Echer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A05221","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JA012744","article-title":"Interplanetary conditions causing intense geomagnetic storms (Dst \u2264 \u2212100 nT) during solar cycle 23 (1996\u20132006)","volume":"113","author":"Echer","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2011.04.021","article-title":"Statistical studies of geomagnetic storms with peak Dst \u2264 \u221250 nT from 1957 to 2008","volume":"73","author":"Echer","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4204","DOI":"10.1029\/JA080i031p04204","article-title":"An empirical relationship between interplanetary conditions and Dst","volume":"80","author":"Burton","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1029\/JA079i007p01105","article-title":"On the cause of geomagnetic storms","volume":"79","author":"Russell","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"SSH 3-1","article-title":"Effect of solar wind velocity on magnetic cloud-associated magnetic storm intensity","volume":"107","author":"Wu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"SMP 19-1","article-title":"Effects of magnetic clouds on the occurrence of geomagnetic storms: The first 4 years of Wind","volume":"107","author":"Wu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"SSC2.1","DOI":"10.1029\/2003GL017901","article-title":"An empirical formula relating the geomagnetic storm\u2019s intensity to the interplanetary parameters: \u2212VBz and \u0394t","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-020-01675-3","article-title":"Dependence of Major Geomagnetic Storm Intensity (Dst\u2264\u2212100nT) on Associated Solar Wind Parameters","volume":"295","author":"Le","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A10244","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JA015471","article-title":"Geomagnetic storms caused by shocks and ICMEs","volume":"115","author":"Ontiveros","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JA029946","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JA029946","article-title":"On optimum solar wind\u2013magnetosphere coupling functions for transpolar voltage and planetary geomagnetic activity","volume":"126","author":"Lockwood","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"A01206","article-title":"A nearly universal solar wind-magnetosphere coupling function inferred from 10 magnetospheric state variables","volume":"112","author":"Newell","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L18103","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL023486","article-title":"A study on the peak Dst and peak negative Bz relationship during intense geomagnetic storms","volume":"32","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.1978.tb05494.x","article-title":"A study of geomagnetic storms","volume":"54","author":"Perreault","year":"1978","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"343","article-title":"Mathematical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution. III. Regression, Heredity, and Panmixia","volume":"42","author":"Pearson","year":"1896","journal-title":"Philos. Mag. Ser. 5"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2007.01.088","article-title":"Coronal mass ejections: Solar cycle aspects","volume":"40","author":"Cremades","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/16\/2952\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:35:22Z","timestamp":1760110522000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/16\/2952"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,12]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16162952"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16162952","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,12]]}}}