{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T12:47:29Z","timestamp":1780404449404,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,21]],"date-time":"2024-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724198400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Maltese archipelago is renowned for its spectacular coasts, characterized by vertical cliffs and scree slopes. In the western sector of Malta and the eastern region of Gozo, a marly clay formation with ductile properties underlying a stiff limestone unit has led to relevant lateral spreading. Utilizing drone aerial photogrammetry, digital elevation models, and satellite imagery, we analyzed the ongoing geomorphological processes across five promontories, selected as case studies. Our analysis reveals a complex interaction between geological structures, Quaternary sea level fluctuations, and lateral spreading processes. Photogrammetric models show that once detached, blocks from the plateaus tend to topple and fall or experience subsidence and backtilting. At Rdum il-Qammie\u0127, fractures up to 250 m long and openings of up to 2 m were observed, while at Sopu, detached blocks exhibit subsidence of up to 50% and rotations nearing 60\u00b0. In all the studied promontories, rotational slides predominantly occur at the frontal sectors, while toppling mechanisms are more common along scarp-edged plateaus. The thickness ratio between the stiff and the ductile formation, ranging from 0.13 to 1.12, along with slope gradients between 10\u00b0 and 41\u00b0, further influence the stability of these coastal features. We discuss the structural and sea level influences on Maltese coastal cliff development over the last 125 ky. We propose a conceptual model outlining the evolution of the Malta Graben promontories through a three-stage evolutionary model: proto-promontories, cliff demolition, and isolation. This model emphasizes the significant role of predisposing, preparatory, and triggering factors in the geomorphological evolution of the Maltese coastline. Our findings provide essential insights into the landscape changes in the Maltese archipelago and represent a useful tool for coastal management and hazard mitigation strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16163072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]],"date-time":"2024-08-22T04:26:57Z","timestamp":1724300817000},"page":"3072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Evolution of Coastal Cliffs Characterized by Lateral Spreading in the Maltese Archipelago"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5352-0566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luciano","family":"Galone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federico","family":"Feliziani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0007-8612","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuele","family":"Colica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enrique","family":"Fucks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, National University of La Plata, La Plata 1900, Argentina"},{"name":"Centro de Estudios Integrales de la Din\u00e1mica Ex\u00f3gena, National University of La Plata (CEIDE-CIC-UNLP), La Plata 1900, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3493-2637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jes\u00fas","family":"Galindo-Zald\u00edvar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geodynamics, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain"},{"name":"Andalusian Earth Sciences Institute, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), University of Granada, 18100 Armilla, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4496-3138","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ritienne","family":"Gauci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Gauci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Planning Unit, Public Works Department, Ministry for Public Works and Planning, FRN 1700 Floriana, Malta"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3882-043X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guglielmo","family":"Grechi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1277-7784","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvatore","family":"Martino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0475-2333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Llu\u00eds","family":"Rivero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mineralogy, Petrology and Applied Geology, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Water Research Institute, Universitat de Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7429-4767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastiano","family":"D\u2019Amico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.91.481","article-title":"Rocky Coast Processes: With Special Reference to the Recession of Soft Rock Cliffs","volume":"91","author":"Sunamura","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. 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