{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T15:27:15Z","timestamp":1774884435007,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]],"date-time":"2024-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study was undertaken to address how near-surface soil water content (SWC) patterns have varied across diverse agroecological regions (AERs) of mainland India from 1979 to 2022 (44 years) and how these variations relate to environmental factors. Grid-wise trend analysis using the Mann\u2013Kendall (MK) trend test and Sen\u2019s slope was conducted to determine the trends and their magnitudes. Additionally, we used Spearman\u2019s rank correlation (\u03c1) to explore the relationships of ESA CCI\u2019s near-surface SWC data with key environmental variables, including rainfall, temperature, actual evapotranspiration, and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). The results revealed significant variations in SWC patterns and trends across different AERs and months. The MK trend test indicated that 17.96% of the area exhibited a significantly increasing trend (p &lt; 0.1), while7.6% showed a significantly decreasing trend, with an average annual Sen\u2019s slope of 0.9 \u00d7 10\u22124 m3 m\u22123 year\u22121 for mainland India. Areas with the highest decreasing trends were AER-16 (warm per-humid with brown and red hill soils), AER-15 (hot subhumid to humid with alluvium-derived soils), and AER-17 (warm per-humid with red and lateritic soils). In contrast, increasing trends were the most prominent in AER-5 (hot semi-arid with medium and deep black soils), AER-6 (hot semi-arid with shallow and medium black soils), and AER-19 (hot humid per-humid with red, lateritic, and alluvium-derived soils). Significant increasing trends were more prevalent during monsoon and post-monsoon months while decreasing trends were noted in pre-monsoon months. Correlation analysis showed strong positive correlations of SWC with rainfall (\u03c1 = 0.70), actual evapotranspiration (\u03c1 = 0.74), and NDVI (\u03c1 = 0.65), but weak or negative correlations with temperature (\u03c1 = 0.12). This study provides valuable insights for policymakers to delineate areas based on soil moisture availability patterns across seasons, aiding in agricultural and water resource planning under changing climatic conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16163108","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,23]],"date-time":"2024-08-23T12:38:43Z","timestamp":1724416723000},"page":"3108","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Spatiotemporal Variations in Near-Surface Soil Water Content across Agroecological Regions of Mainland India: 1979\u20132022 (44 Years)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2795-8660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alka","family":"Rani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"given":"Nishant K.","family":"Sinha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9353-2708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bikram","family":"Jyoti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8603-3676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jitendra","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"given":"Dhiraj","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"given":"Rahul","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"given":"Pragya","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India"}]},{"given":"Monoranjan","family":"Mohanty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3486-4109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Somasundaram","family":"Jayaraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"given":"Ranjeet Singh","family":"Chaudhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1224-7660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Narendra Kumar","family":"Lenka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Soil Physics, ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal 462038, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3765-529X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikul","family":"Kumari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3963-265X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ankur","family":"Srivastava","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2023.130297","article-title":"Spatio-temporal changes in global root zone soil moisture from 1981 to 2017","volume":"626","author":"Luo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. 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