{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T14:49:10Z","timestamp":1770907750238,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]],"date-time":"2024-08-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724889600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fondazione Cariverona","award":["11170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11170"]}]},{"name":"Fondazione Cariverona","award":["2019.0430.209"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019.0430.209"]}]},{"name":"Veneto Region","award":["11170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11170"]}]},{"name":"Veneto Region","award":["2019.0430.209"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019.0430.209"]}]},{"name":"University of Vienna","award":["11170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11170"]}]},{"name":"University of Vienna","award":["2019.0430.209"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019.0430.209"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Monitoring surface displacements of landslides is essential for evaluating their evolution and the effectiveness of mitigation works. Traditional methods like robotic total stations (RTSs) and GNSS provide high-accuracy measurements but are limited to discrete points, potentially missing the broader landslide\u2019s behavior. On the contrary, laser scanner surveys offer accurate 3D representations of slopes and the possibility of inferring their movements, but they are often limited to infrequent, high-cost surveys. Monitoring techniques based on ground-based digital photogrammetry may represent a new, robust, and cost-effective alternative. This study demonstrates the use of multi-temporal images from fixed and calibrated cameras to achieve the 3D reconstruction of landslide displacements. The method presented offers the important benefit of obtaining spatially dense displacement data across the entire camera view and quasi-continuous temporal measurement. This paper outlines the framework for this prototyping technique, along with a description of the necessary hardware and procedural steps. Furthermore, strengths and weaknesses are discussed based on the activities carried out in a landslide case study in northeastern Italy. The results from the photo-monitoring are reported, discussed, and compared with traditional topographical data, validating the reliability of this new approach in monitoring the time evolution of surface displacements across the entire landslide area.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16173199","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]],"date-time":"2024-08-29T11:33:37Z","timestamp":1724931217000},"page":"3199","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["DIPHORM: An Innovative DIgital PHOtogrammetRic Monitoring Technique for Detecting Surficial Displacements of Landslides"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1077-8874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Brezzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering (ICEA), University of Padova, Via Ognissanti, 39, 35129 Padua, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9562-9527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Gabrieli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering (ICEA), University of Padova, Via Ognissanti, 39, 35129 Padua, Italy"}]},{"given":"Davide","family":"Vallisari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering (ICEA), University of Padova, Via Ognissanti, 39, 35129 Padua, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3533-3345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edoardo","family":"Carraro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geomorphological Systems and Risk Research (ENGAGE), Department of Geography and Regional Research, University of Vienna, Universit\u00e4tsstra\u00dfe 7, 1010 Vienna, Austria"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6368-7194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Pol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IATE, University of Montpellier, INRAE, Institut Agro, 2 Place Pierre Viala, 34060 Montpellier, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8112-829X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Galgaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geosciences, University of Padova, Via Gradenigo, 6, 35131 Padua, Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7547-9904","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simonetta","family":"Cola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering (ICEA), University of Padova, Via Ognissanti, 39, 35129 Padua, Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-7952(99)00122-2","article-title":"A Critical Review of Landslide Monitoring Experiences","volume":"55","author":"Angeli","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"51","article-title":"Evolutionary Behaviour of the Tessina Landslide","volume":"50","author":"Cola","year":"2016","journal-title":"Riv. Ital. Geotec."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Dunnicliff, J. (1993). Geotechnical Instrumentation for Monitoring Field Performance, Wiley. A Wiley-Interscience Publication."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marr, P., Jim\u00e9nez Donato, Y.A., Carraro, E., Kanta, R., and Glade, T. (2023). The Role of Historical Data to Investigate Slow-Moving Landslides by Long-Term Monitoring Systems in Lower Austria. Land, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/land12030659"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-013-0433-1","article-title":"Chasing a Complete Understanding of the Triggering Mechanisms of a Large Rapidly Evolving Rockslide","volume":"11","author":"Crosta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2019.03.014","article-title":"Combination of GNSS, Satellite InSAR, and GBInSAR Remote Sensing Monitoring to Improve the Understanding of a Large Landslide in High Alpine Environment","volume":"335","author":"Tofani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2785","DOI":"10.3390\/rs122785","article-title":"Application of a Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) to the Study of the S\u00e9chilienne Landslide (Is\u00e8re, France)","volume":"2","author":"Kasperski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.2113\/gssgfbull.178.2.89","article-title":"Remote-Sensing Techniques for Analysing Landslide Kinematics: A Review","volume":"178","author":"Delacourt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bull. Soc. G\u00e9ol. Fr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1921","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-1921-2009","article-title":"Assessing the Capability of Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Monitoring Slow Moving Landslides","volume":"9","author":"Prokop","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"246","article-title":"Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Digital Photogrammetry Techniques to Monitor Landslide Bodies","volume":"35","author":"Bitelli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3425","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160601024234","article-title":"Terrestrial Laser Scanner to Detect Landslide Displacement Fields: A New Approach","volume":"28","author":"Teza","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-5-293-2017","article-title":"Automated Terrestrial Laser Scanning with Near-Real-Time Change Detection\u2014Monitoring of the S\u00e9chilienne Landslide","volume":"5","author":"Kromer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3656","article-title":"A Review of Terrestrial Radar Interferometry for Measuring Surface Change in the Geosciences","volume":"40","author":"Caduff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-7952(02)00196-5","article-title":"Landslide Monitoring by Using Ground-Based SAR Interferometry: An Example of Application to the Tessina Landslide in Italy","volume":"68","author":"Tarchi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.04.001","article-title":"A Review of Ground-Based SAR Interferometry for Deformation Measurement","volume":"93","author":"Monserrat","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2014.10.039","article-title":"Ground-Based Multi-View Photogrammetry for the Monitoring of Landslide Deformation and Erosion","volume":"231","author":"Stumpf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Livio, F.A., Bovo, F., Gabrieli, F., Gambillara, R., Rossato, S., Martin, S., and Michetti, A.M. (2022). Stability Analysis of a Landslide Scarp by Means of Virtual Outcrops: The Mt. Peron Niche Area (Masiere Di Vedana Rock Avalanche, Eastern Southern Alps). Front. Earth Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2022.863880"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kromer, R., Walton, G., Gray, B., Lato, M., and Group, R. (2019). Development and Optimization of an Automated Fixed-Location Time Lapse Photogrammetric Rock Slope Monitoring System. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11161890"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blanch, X., Abellan, A., and Guinau, M. (2020). Point Cloud Stacking: A Workflow to Enhance 3D Monitoring Capabilities Using Time-Lapse Cameras. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12081240"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giacomini, A., Thoeni, K., Santise, M., Diotri, F., Booth, S., Fityus, S., and Roncella, R. (2020). Temporal-Spatial Frequency Rockfall Data from Open-Pit Highwalls Using a Low-Cost Monitoring System. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12152459"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.03.007","article-title":"Correlation of Multi-Temporal Ground-Based Optical Images for Landslide Monitoring: Application, Potential and Limitations","volume":"70","author":"Travelletti","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Margottini, C., Canuti, P., and Sassa, K. (2013). Landslide Displacement Monitoring from Multi-Temporal Terrestrial Digital Images: Case of the Valoria Landslide Site. Landslide Science and Practice, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-31325-7"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsannals-II-5-297-2014","article-title":"Landslide Monitoring by Fixed-Base Terrestrial Stereo-Photogrammetry","volume":"II\u20135","author":"Roncella","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1139\/cgj-2015-0253","article-title":"Improved Image-Based Deformation Measurement for Geotechnical Applications","volume":"53","author":"Stanier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1139\/cgj-2014-0080","article-title":"Thirty-Sixth Canadian Geotechnical Colloquium: Advances in Visualization of Geotechnical Processes through Digital Image Correlation","volume":"52","author":"Take","year":"2015","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1680\/geot.2003.53.7.619","article-title":"Soil Deformation Measurement Using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and Photogrammetry","volume":"53","author":"White","year":"2003","journal-title":"G\u00e9otechnique"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011JF002161","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JF002161","article-title":"Displacement Fields from Point Cloud Data: Application of Particle Imaging Velocimetry to Landslide Geodesy","volume":"117","author":"Aryal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brezzi, L., Carraro, E., Pasa, D., Teza, G., Cola, S., and Galgaro, A. (2021). Post-Collapse Evolution of a Rapid Landslide from Sequential Analysis with FE and SPH-Based Models. Geosciences, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences11090364"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012130","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/833\/1\/012130","article-title":"Propagation Analysis and Risk Assessment of an Active Complex Landslide Using a Monte Carlo Statistical Approach","volume":"833","author":"Brezzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teza, G., Cola, S., Brezzi, L., and Galgaro, A. (2022). Wadenow: A Matlab Toolbox for Early Forecasting of the Velocity Trend of a Rainfall-Triggered Landslide by Means of Continuous Wavelet Transform and Deep Learning. Geosciences, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences12050205"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Stereo-Rig Design: Lens Selection\u2014Part 3","volume":"37","author":"Reu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Tech."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartley, R., and Zisserman, A. (2004). Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511811685"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.08.021","article-title":"\u2018Structure-from-Motion\u2019 Photogrammetry: A Low-Cost, Effective Tool for Geoscience Applications","volume":"179","author":"Westoby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Heikkila, J., and Silven, O. (1997, January 17\u201319). A Four-Step Camera Calibration Procedure with Implicit Image Correction. Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, San Juan, PR, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1109\/34.888718","article-title":"A Flexible New Technique for Camera Calibration","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2027","DOI":"10.3390\/s100302027","article-title":"Automatic Chessboard Detection for Intrinsic and Extrinsic Camera Parameter Calibration","volume":"10","author":"Armingol","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-4-425-2016","article-title":"Suitability of Ground-Based SfM\u2013MVS for Monitoring Glacial and Periglacial Processes","volume":"4","author":"Piermattei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/0262-8856(92)90066-C","article-title":"Object Modelling by Registration of Multiple Range Images","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"1992","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2008.10.002","article-title":"An Automatic Procedure for Co-Registration of Terrestrial Laser Scanners and Digital Cameras","volume":"64","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Lichti, D., Gordon, S., Stewart, M., Franke, J., and Tsakiri, M. (2002, January 9). Comparison of Digital Photogrammetry and Laser Scanning. Proceedings of the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Graz, Austria."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szegedy, C., Liu, W., Jia, Y., Sermanet, P., Reed, S., Anguelov, D., Erhan, D., Vanhoucke, V., and Rabinovich, A. (2015, January 7\u201312). Going Deeper with Convolutions. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2015.7298594"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Khosla, A., Lapedriza, A., Torralba, A., and Oliva, A. (2016). Places: An Image Database for Deep Scene Understanding. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1167\/17.10.296"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"062001","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/20\/6\/062001","article-title":"Two-Dimensional Digital Image Correlation for in-Plane Displacement and Strain Measurement: A Review","volume":"20","author":"Pan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2016.06.030","article-title":"A Low-Cost Landslide Displacement Activity Assessment from Time-Lapse Photogrammetry and Rainfall Data: Application to the Tessina Landslide Site","volume":"269","author":"Gabrieli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2007.09.003","article-title":"Characterization of Landslide Ground Surface Kinematics from Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Strain Field Computation","volume":"97","author":"Teza","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3703706","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/3703706","article-title":"Physical and Mechanical Properties of Gypsum-Like Rock Materials","volume":"2020","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Brezzi, L., Liang, Z., Gabrieli, F., Zhou, Z., and Cola, S. (2024). Image Analysis and LSTM Methods for Forecasting Surficial Displacements of a Landslide Triggered by Snowfall and Rainfall. Landslides, 1\u201317.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-024-02328-3"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/17\/3199\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:45:20Z","timestamp":1760111120000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/17\/3199"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16173199"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16173199","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,29]]}}}