{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T20:39:15Z","timestamp":1773088755992,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]],"date-time":"2024-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724976000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Growth in urban areas contributes to environmental degradation through increased land surface temperature (LST), exacerbating the urban heat island (UHI) effect. This study examined how land use and land cover (LULC) characteristics of Shillong City are linked to the UHI phenomenon. The LULC was classified into five broad categories: agricultural land, barren land, settlement, vegetation, and water bodies. The results show that the study area experienced notable changes in the LULC pattern from 1993 to 2023, with settlement areas increasing by 10.96%, transforming previously barren lands. The emergence and growth of settlements (and\/or built-up areas) and impervious surfaces have led to a steady increase in LST. The settlement land use class had an average LST of 17.45 \u00b0C in 1993, 21.56 \u00b0C in 2003, 21.37 \u00b0C in 2013, and 21.75 \u00b0C in 2023. From 1993 to 2023, surface temperatures in settlement areas rose by a maximum of 4.3 \u00b0C, while barren land and vegetated areas also saw an increase of 4.9 \u00b0C and 4.0 \u00b0C, respectively. The relationship between LULC and the LST has been evaluated to identify hotspot areas. The highest temperatures are found in crowded and dense built-up areas, while the lowest temperatures are found in vegetated areas and water bodies. The findings also reveal a clear warming trend over the 30-year period, marked by a substantial decrease in areas with LST below 12 \u00b0C and between 12\u201317 \u00b0C, highlighting a shift towards warmer temperatures. Projected LULC changes indicate that urban areas will experience significant growth, increasing from 17.36% of the total area in 2023 to 21.39% in 2030, and further to 28.56% by 2050. The results suggest that the settlement land use class will increase by 11.2%, accompanied by a decrease in agricultural lands, vegetation, and water bodies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16173212","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]],"date-time":"2024-08-30T07:45:47Z","timestamp":1725003947000},"page":"3212","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Impact of Urbanization on Urban Heat Island Dynamics in Shillong City, India Using Google Earth Engine and CA-Markov Modeling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Parimita","family":"Saikia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, The Assam Royal Global University, Guwahati 781035, India"}]},{"given":"Preety","family":"War","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong 793022, India"}]},{"given":"Lapynshai M.","family":"Umlong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong 793022, India"}]},{"given":"Bibhash","family":"Nath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Environmental Science, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5366","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19158-1","article-title":"Dramatic uneven urbanization of large cities throughout the world in recent decades","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8181(00)00021-7","article-title":"The impact of land use\u2014Land cover changes due to urbanization on surface microclimate and hydrology: A satellite perspective","volume":"25","author":"Carlson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1111772","article-title":"Global consequences of land use","volume":"309","author":"Foley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2006.03.020","article-title":"Effects of urbanization and land-use type on monthly extreme temperatures in a developing semi-arid region, Turkey","volume":"68","author":"Tonkaz","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Arid. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2014.02.019","article-title":"How factors of land use\/land cover, building configuration, and adjacent heat sources and sinks explain Urban Heat Islands in Chicago","volume":"125","author":"Coseo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullah, N., Siddique, M.A., Ding, M., Grigoryan, S., Khan, I.A., Kang, Z., Tsou, S., Zhang, T., Hu, Y., and Zhang, Y. (2023). The Impact of Urbanization on Urban Heat Island: Predictive Approach Using Google Earth Engine and CA-Markov Modelling (2005\u20132050) of Tianjin City, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Heal., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20032642"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-013-0685-7","article-title":"Land surface temperature patterns in the urban agglomeration of Krakow (Poland) derived from Landsat-7\/ETM+ data","volume":"171","author":"Walawender","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2024, July 15). United Nations. Available online: https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/desa."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.02.029","article-title":"The impact of built-up surfaces on land surface temperatures in Italian urban areas","volume":"551","author":"Morabito","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"311","article-title":"Monitoring and assessment of urban heat islands over the Southern region of Cairo Governorate, Egypt","volume":"21","author":"Amany","year":"2018","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote. Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"47","article-title":"Automated Mapping of Urban Heat Island to Predict Land Surface Temperature and Land use\/cover Change Using Machine Learning Algorithms: Mansoura City","volume":"18","author":"Sameh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Geoinformatics"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envc.2020.100017","article-title":"Land use and land cover change detection and prediction in Bhutan\u2019s high altitude city of Thimphu, using cellular automata and Markov chain","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s41976-018-0004-2","article-title":"Satellite-Driven Land Surface Temperature (LST) Using Landsat 5, 7 (TM\/ETM+ SLC) and Landsat 8 (OLI\/TIRS) Data and Its Association with Built-Up and Green Cover Over Urban Delhi, India","volume":"1","author":"Kumari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote. Sens. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karunaratne, S., Athukorala, D., Murayama, Y., and Morimoto, T. (2022). Assessing Surface Urban Heat Island Related to Land Use\/Land Cover Composition and Pattern in the Temperate Mountain Valley City of Kathmandu, Nepal. Remote. Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14164047"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(95)02259-Z","article-title":"Terminology in thermal infrared remote sensing of natural surfaces","volume":"77","author":"Norman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nath, B., Ni-Meister, W., and \u00d6zdo\u011fan, M. (2021). Fine-Scale Urban Heat Patterns in New York City Measured by ASTER Satellite\u2014The Role of Complex Spatial Structures. Remote. Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202108.0399.v1"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"235","article-title":"Dynamics of Land Use Land Cover for Sustainability: A Case of Shillong, Meghalaya, India","volume":"2","author":"Rynganga","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"197","article-title":"Landuse\/Landcover Change Detection in Umshing-Mawkynroh of East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya Using Spatial Information Technology","volume":"6","author":"Deka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"45","article-title":"Population growth and dynamics of land use\/land cover pattern in Shillong urban agglomeration","volume":"34","author":"Bora","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hill Geogr."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saikia, A., and Thapa, P. (2019). Swelter in the City: Population Distribution, Land Use Change and the Urban Heat Island Effect in Shillong, India. Environmental Change in the Himalayan Region, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-03362-0"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Census (2024, June 12). Census of India, Available online: www.censusindia.gov.in."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"NESAC (2024, March 20). Formulation of Risk Informed GIS Based Master Plan, Shillong Planning Area, Meghalaya, Available online: https:\/\/megurban.gov.in\/notifications\/RiskInformedMasterPlans\/Finalised%20Report%20-%20Shillong.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"22","article-title":"Trend and variability of rainfall: A case study of Shillong city","volume":"6","author":"Tanti","year":"2017","journal-title":"AJET"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Zhang, C., Zheng, X., and Chen, Y. (2020). Temporal-Spatial Analysis of the Warming Effect of Different Cultivated Land Urbanization of Metropolitan Area in China. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-59593-0"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Gerven, M., and Bohte, S. (2017). Editorial: Artificial Neural Networks as Models of Neural Information Processing. Front. Comput. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2017.00114"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2005.857030","article-title":"A Landsat surface reflectance dataset for North America, 1990\u20132000","volume":"3","author":"Masek","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.04.008","article-title":"Preliminary analysis of the performance of the Landsat 8\/OLI land surface reflectance product","volume":"185","author":"Vermote","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2009.10.008","article-title":"Monitoring land cover changes in a newly reclaimed area of Egypt using multi-temporal Landsat data","volume":"30","author":"Bakr","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1080\/15715124.2017.1351978","article-title":"Estimating soil loss for sustainable land management planning at the Gelana sub-watershed, northern highlands of Ethiopia","volume":"16","author":"Miheretu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. River Basin Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsd.2023.100935","article-title":"Quantifying the changing pattern of water level conditions and groundwater potential zones in a rapidly urbanizing Kamrup metropolitan district of Assam, India","volume":"21","author":"Saikia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Groundw. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2020.1813210","article-title":"Impact of spatiotemporal land-use and land-cover changes on surface urban heat islands in a semiarid region using Landsat data","volume":"14","author":"Maskooni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koko, A.F., Han, Z., Wu, Y., Abubakar, G.A., and Bello, M. (2022). Spatiotemporal Land Use\/Land Cover Mapping and Prediction Based on Hybrid Modeling Approach: A Case Study of Kano Metropolis, Nigeria (2020\u20132050). Remote. Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14236083"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomat.2024.100020","article-title":"Heatwave vulnerability of large metropolitans in Bangladesh: An evaluation","volume":"76","author":"Adnan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Geomatica"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084995","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.8.084995","article-title":"Scale effect analysis of the relationships between urban heat island and impact factors: Case study in Chongqing","volume":"8","author":"Luo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siddique, M.A., Wang, Y., Xu, N., Ullah, N., and Zeng, P. (2021). The Spatiotemporal Implications of Urbanization for Urban Heat Islands in Beijing: A Predictive Approach Based on CA\u2013Markov Modeling (2004\u20132050). Remote. Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13224697"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442-16.10.1511","article-title":"Uncertainties in radiative forcing due to surface albedo changes caused by land-use changes","volume":"16","author":"Myhre","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, F., Lan, X., Li, W., Zhu, W., and Li, T. (2021). Influence of Land Use Change on the Surface Albedo and Climate Change in the Qinling-Daba Mountains. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su131810153"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2008.10.002","article-title":"Rural sustainability under threat in Zimbabwe\u2014Simulation of future land use\/cover changes in the Bindura district based on the Markov-cellular automata model","volume":"29","author":"Kamusoko","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.09.013","article-title":"Regional land salinization assessment and simulation through cellular automaton-Markov modeling and spatial pattern analysis","volume":"439","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1007\/s12524-013-0353-5","article-title":"Prediction of Land Cover Change Using Markov and Cellular Automata Models: Case of Al-Ain, UAE, 1992\u20132030","volume":"42","author":"Yagoub","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2014.03.011","article-title":"A land use change model: Integrating landscape pattern indexes and Markov-CA","volume":"283","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"52","article-title":"Land use\/land cover (LULC) classification using deep-LSTM for hyperspectral images","volume":"27","author":"Tejasree","year":"2024","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote. Sens. Space Sci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/17\/3212\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:45:45Z","timestamp":1760111145000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/17\/3212"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16173212"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16173212","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]]}}}