{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T20:06:58Z","timestamp":1777493218671,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,13]],"date-time":"2024-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726185600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ANID Fondecyt Regular","award":["1241521"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1241521"]}]},{"name":"ANID Fondecyt Regular","award":["1241977"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1241977"]}]},{"name":"ANID Fondecyt Regular","award":["PO-1577"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PO-1577"]}]},{"name":"ANID Fondecyt Regular","award":["ANID\/FONDAP\/15130015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID\/FONDAP\/15130015"]}]},{"name":"ANID Fondecyt Regular","award":["ANID\/FONDAP\/1523A0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID\/FONDAP\/1523A0001"]}]},{"name":"ANID Fondecyt Regular","award":["346208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["346208"]}]},{"name":"Lincoln Institute of Land Policy","award":["1241521"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1241521"]}]},{"name":"Lincoln Institute of Land Policy","award":["1241977"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1241977"]}]},{"name":"Lincoln Institute of Land Policy","award":["PO-1577"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PO-1577"]}]},{"name":"Lincoln Institute of Land Policy","award":["ANID\/FONDAP\/15130015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID\/FONDAP\/15130015"]}]},{"name":"Lincoln Institute of Land Policy","award":["ANID\/FONDAP\/1523A0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID\/FONDAP\/1523A0001"]}]},{"name":"Lincoln Institute of Land Policy","award":["346208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["346208"]}]},{"name":"Centro de Recursos H\u00eddricos para la Agricultura y la Miner\u00eda (CRHIAM)","award":["1241521"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1241521"]}]},{"name":"Centro de Recursos H\u00eddricos para la Agricultura y la Miner\u00eda (CRHIAM)","award":["1241977"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1241977"]}]},{"name":"Centro de Recursos H\u00eddricos para la Agricultura y la Miner\u00eda (CRHIAM)","award":["PO-1577"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PO-1577"]}]},{"name":"Centro de Recursos H\u00eddricos para la Agricultura y la Miner\u00eda (CRHIAM)","award":["ANID\/FONDAP\/15130015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID\/FONDAP\/15130015"]}]},{"name":"Centro de Recursos H\u00eddricos para la Agricultura y la Miner\u00eda (CRHIAM)","award":["ANID\/FONDAP\/1523A0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID\/FONDAP\/1523A0001"]}]},{"name":"Centro de Recursos H\u00eddricos para la Agricultura y la Miner\u00eda (CRHIAM)","award":["346208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["346208"]}]},{"name":"Finnish Foundation for Technology Promotion and the Research Council of Finland","award":["1241521"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1241521"]}]},{"name":"Finnish Foundation for Technology Promotion and the Research Council of Finland","award":["1241977"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1241977"]}]},{"name":"Finnish Foundation for Technology Promotion and the Research Council of Finland","award":["PO-1577"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PO-1577"]}]},{"name":"Finnish Foundation for Technology Promotion and the Research Council of Finland","award":["ANID\/FONDAP\/15130015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID\/FONDAP\/15130015"]}]},{"name":"Finnish Foundation for Technology Promotion and the Research Council of Finland","award":["ANID\/FONDAP\/1523A0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANID\/FONDAP\/1523A0001"]}]},{"name":"Finnish Foundation for Technology Promotion and the Research Council of Finland","award":["346208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["346208"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examines the dynamics of limnological parameters of a South American lake located in southern Chile with the objective of predicting chlorophyll-a levels, which are a key indicator of algal biomass and water quality, by integrating combined remote sensing and machine learning techniques. Employing four advanced machine learning models (recurrent neural network (RNNs), long short-term memory (LSTM), recurrent gate unit (GRU), and temporal convolutional network (TCNs)), the research focuses on the estimation of chlorophyll-a concentrations at three sampling stations within Lake Ranco. The data span from 1987 to 2020 and are used in three different cases: using only in situ data (Case 1), using in situ and meteorological data (Case 2), using in situ, and meteorological and satellite data from Landsat and Sentinel missions (Case 3). In all cases, each machine learning model shows robust performance, with promising results in predicting chlorophyll-a concentrations. Among these models, LSTM stands out as the most effective, with the best metrics in the estimation, the best performance was Case 1, with R2 = 0.89, an RSME of 0.32 \u00b5g\/L, an MAE 1.25 \u00b5g\/L and an MSE 0.25 (\u00b5g\/L)2, consistently outperforming the others according to the static metrics used for validation. This finding underscores the effectiveness of LSTM in capturing the complex temporal relationships inherent in the dataset. However, increasing the dataset in Case 3 shows a better performance of TCNs (R2 = 0.96; MSE = 0.33 (\u00b5g\/L)2; RMSE = 0.13 \u00b5g\/L; and MAE = 0.06 \u00b5g\/L). The successful application of machine learning algorithms emphasizes their potential to elucidate the dynamics of algal biomass in Lake Ranco, located in the southern region of Chile. These results not only contribute to a deeper understanding of the lake ecosystem but also highlight the utility of advanced computational techniques in environmental research and management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16183401","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,13]],"date-time":"2024-09-13T03:03:37Z","timestamp":1726196617000},"page":"3401","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Leveraging Machine Learning and Remote Sensing for Water Quality Analysis in Lake Ranco, Southern Chile"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0550-0253","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lien","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-L\u00f3pez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Arquitectura y Dise\u00f1o, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Lientur 1457, Concepci\u00f3n 4030000, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3588-6115","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisandra","family":"Bravo Alvarez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Concepci\u00f3n, Edmundo Larenas 219, Concepci\u00f3n 4030000, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3290-4947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iongel","family":"Duran-Llacer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Ingenier\u00eda en Medio Ambiente y Sustentabilidad, Escuela de Ingenier\u00eda Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingenier\u00eda y Tecnolog\u00eda, Universidad Mayor, Camino La Pir\u00e1mide 5750, Santiago 8580745, Chile"},{"name":"H\u00e9mera Centro de Observaci\u00f3n de la Tierra, Facultad de Ciencias, Ingenier\u00eda y Tecnolog\u00eda, Universidad Mayor, Camino La Pir\u00e1mide 5750, Santiago 8580745, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2096-8890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David E.","family":"Ru\u00edz-Guirola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Wireless Communications, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1622-3180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel","family":"Montejo-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Universitario de Investigaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo Tecnol\u00f3gico, Universidad Tecnol\u00f3gica Metropolitana, Santiago 8940577, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3553-315X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebeca","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Retureta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda de Obras Civiles, Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Francisco Salazar 1145, Temuco 4811186, Chile"},{"name":"Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales, Facultad de Recursos Naturales, Universidad Cat\u00f3lica de Temuco, Rudecindo Ortega 02950, Temuco 4780000, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ernesto","family":"L\u00f3pez-Morales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Arquitectura y Dise\u00f1o, Universidad San Sebasti\u00e1n, Lientur 1457, Concepci\u00f3n 4030000, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luc","family":"Bourrel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"G\u00e9osciences Environnement Toulouse, UMR 5563, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, CNRS-IRD-OMP-CNES, 31400 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4661-8274","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric","family":"Frappart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISPA, UMR 1391 INRAE, Bordeaux Sciences Agro, UMR 1391, 33140 Villenave-d\u2019Ornon, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Urrutia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad de Concepci\u00f3n, Concepci\u00f3n 4030000, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, B., Zhang, M., Yang, R., and Tang, W. 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