{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T16:19:41Z","timestamp":1781713181860,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,28]],"date-time":"2024-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Research Agreement signed between the Department of Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences of the University of Bari Aldo Moro and the Marine Protected Area of Torre Guaceto","award":["RDO 3481808"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RDO 3481808"]}]},{"name":"Research Agreement signed between the Department of Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences of the University of Bari Aldo Moro and the Marine Protected Area of Torre Guaceto","award":["UIDP\/GEO\/04084\/2020_UC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/GEO\/04084\/2020_UC"]}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["RDO 3481808"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RDO 3481808"]}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["UIDP\/GEO\/04084\/2020_UC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDP\/GEO\/04084\/2020_UC"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, different approaches for detecting of beach litter (BL) items in coastal environments are applied: the direct in situ survey, an indirect image analysis based on the manual visual screening approach, and two different automatic segmentation and classification tools. One is a Mask-RCNN based-algorithm, already used in a previous work, but specifically improved in this study for multi-class analysis. Test cases were carried out at the Torre Guaceto Marine Protected Area (Apulia Region, southern Italy), using a novel dataset from images acquired in different coastal environments by tailored photogrammetric Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) surveys. The analysis of the overall methodologies used in this study highlights the potential exhibited by the two machine learning (ML) techniques (Mask-RCCN-based and SVM algorithms), but they still show some limitations concerning direct methodologies. The results of the analysis show that the Mask-RCNN-based algorithm requires further improvements and a consistent increase in the number of training elements, while the SVM algorithm shows limitations related to pixel-based classification. Furthermore, the outcomes of this research highlight the high suitability of ML tools for assessing BL pollution and contributing to coastal conservation efforts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16193617","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T05:45:27Z","timestamp":1727675127000},"page":"3617","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Application of Direct and Indirect Methodologies for Beach Litter Detection in Coastal Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Angelo","family":"Sozio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincenzo Mariano","family":"Scarrica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences and Technology, University of Naples Parthenope, 80143 Napoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3414-7321","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angela","family":"Rizzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy"},{"name":"Research Centre for Coastal Dynamics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8855-6171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pietro Patrizio Ciro","family":"Aucelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences and Technology, University of Naples Parthenope, 80143 Napoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Barracane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environmental Surveys s.r.l., Via Dario Lupo n. 65, 74121 Taranto, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3889-2492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca Antonio","family":"Dimuccio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Studies in Geography and Spatial Planning (CEGOT), Department of Geography and Tourism, 3004-503 Coimbra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7653-0639","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Centre of Studies in Geography and Spatial Planning (CEGOT), Department of Geography and Tourism, 3004-503 Coimbra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6741-0085","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"La Salandra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4708-5860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonino","family":"Staiano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sciences and Technology, University of Naples Parthenope, 80143 Napoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Pia","family":"Tarantino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0328-737X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni","family":"Scicchitano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Geoenvironmental Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy"},{"name":"Research Centre for Coastal Dynamics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Wenneker, B., and Oosterbaan, L. 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