{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:29:39Z","timestamp":1760146179889,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,29]],"date-time":"2024-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727568000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds of the Institute of Geomechanics (No. 92), Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences","award":["No. 92"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 92"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Surface unloading due to impact cratering results in lava filling the crater floor. Elevation differences in the crater floor, a common geological phenomenon on the Moon, represent direct evidence of cratering processes. However, few studies have been conducted on mare-filled craters on the Moon. Al-Biruni (81 km) is a farside impact crater with an inclined topographic profile on its floor. We quantitatively measure the morphology of Al-Biruni and model the basaltic lava emplacement to depict the cratering process. Differential subsidence due to melt cooling, wall collapse, impact conditions and structural failure were assessed as potential factors influencing the formation of the elevation differences on the floor. The results suggest that pre-impact topography is a plausible cause of the differences in floor elevation within Al-Biruni. Other factors may also play a role in this process, affecting lava flow by altering the topography of the crater floor after the impact. Thus, regardless of whether the lava inside the crater is impact-generated or comes from outside the crater, altering topography at different stages of the cratering process is an essential factor in creating the sloped terrain on the crater floor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16193645","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,30]],"date-time":"2024-09-30T05:45:27Z","timestamp":1727675127000},"page":"3645","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Quantitative Analysis of the Sloping Terrain on Al-Biruni\u2019s Floor and Implications for the Cratering Process"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Feng","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0551-920X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuanxu","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7834-8416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guanghao","family":"Ha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2011.08.012","article-title":"Impact ejecta emplacement on terrestrial planets","volume":"310","author":"Osinski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6408","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL078150","article-title":"Magma Ascent and Eruption Triggered by Cratering on the Moon","volume":"45","author":"Michaut","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00562240","article-title":"Floor-fractured lunar craters","volume":"15","author":"Schultz","year":"1976","journal-title":"Moon"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jozwiak, L.M., Head, J.W., Zuber, M.T., Smith, D.E., and Neumann, G.A. (2012). Lunar floor-fractured craters: Classification, distribution, origin and implications for magmatism and shallow crustal structure. J. Geophys. Res. Planets, 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JE004134"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2017.07.004","article-title":"The role of pre-impact topography in impact melt emplacement on terrestrial planets","volume":"297","author":"Neish","year":"2017","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2022.115298","article-title":"Mare filled craters on the Moon","volume":"390","author":"Kimi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2016.05.004","article-title":"Geological mapping of impact melt deposits at lunar complex craters Jackson and Tycho: Morphologic and topographic diversity and relation to the cratering process","volume":"283","author":"Dhingra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104856","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pss.2020.104856","article-title":"Morphological analysis and mapping of complex craters of Copernican age: Crookes, Ohm and Stevinus","volume":"184","author":"Thaker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pss.2017.11.007","article-title":"Geological mapping of lunar highland crater Lalande: Topographic configuration, morphology and cratering process","volume":"151","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pss.2023.105784","article-title":"Lava filling history of the herodotus crater on the aristarchus plateau: Insights from remote sensing observations","volume":"238","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11875","DOI":"10.1029\/1998JE900047","article-title":"The topography of Tycho Crater","volume":"104","author":"Margot","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Wilson, L., and Head, J.W. (2011, January 7\u201311). Impact melt sheets in lunar basins: Estimating thickness from cooling behavior. Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo103","article-title":"Importance of pre-impact crustal structure for the asymmetry of the Chicxulub impact crater","volume":"1","author":"Gulick","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Nelson, D., Koeber, S., Daud, K., Robinson, M., Watters, T., Banks, M., and Williams, N. (2014, January 17\u201321). Mapping lunar maria extents and lobate scarps using LROC image products. Proceedings of the 45th Annual lunar and planetary science conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2023.115496","article-title":"Compositional diversity in the Mare Marginis and Mare Smythii: An insight into the volcanism in the region","volume":"395","author":"Panwar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-7037(92)90183-J","article-title":"Lunar mare volcanism: Stratigraphy, eruption conditions, and the evolution of secondary crusts","volume":"56","author":"Head","year":"1992","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robbins, S.J., and Hynek, B.M. (2012). A new global database of Mars impact craters \u22651 km: 1. Database creation, properties, and parameters. J. Geophys. Res. Planets, 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JE003966"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ages and stratigraphy of lunar mare basalts: A synthesis","volume":"Volume 477","author":"Ambrose","year":"2011","journal-title":"Recent Advances and Current Research Issues in Lunar Stratigraphy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4217","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JE001111","article-title":"Geology of the Smythii and Marginis region of the Moon: Using integrated remotely sensed data","volume":"105","author":"Gillis","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5965","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33670-6","article-title":"Spectral interpretation of late-stage mare basalt mineralogy unveiled by Chang\u2019E-5 samples","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7554","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-43358-0","article-title":"Comprehensive mapping of lunar surface chemistry by adding Chang\u2019e-5 samples with deep learning","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilhelms, D.E., McCauley, J.F., and Trask, N.J. (1987). The Geologic History of the Moon, USGS.","DOI":"10.3133\/pp1348"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"53","article-title":"Previously unknown large impact basins on the Moon: Implications for lunar stratigraphy","volume":"477","author":"Frey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Recent Adv. Curr. Res. Issues Lunar Stratigr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1500852","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500852","article-title":"Lunar impact basins revealed by Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory measurements","volume":"1","author":"Neumann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Otake, H., Ohtake, M., and Hirata, N. (2012, January 19\u201323). Lunar iron and titanium abundance algorithms based on SELENE (Kaguya) Multiband Imager data. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2013.05.010","article-title":"One Moon, many measurements 3: Spectral reflectance","volume":"226","author":"Ohtake","year":"2013","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20297","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JE001117","article-title":"Lunar iron and titanium abundance algorithms based on final processing of Clementine ultraviolet-visible images","volume":"105","author":"Lucey","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20377","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JE001110","article-title":"Imaging of lunar surface maturity","volume":"105","author":"Lucey","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2015.07.039","article-title":"A new lunar digital elevation model from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter and SELENE Terrain Camera","volume":"273","author":"Barker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JE005729","article-title":"Geologic Analyses of the Causes of Morphological Variations in Lunar Craters Within the Simple-to-Complex Transition","volume":"124","author":"Chandnani","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Melosh, H.J. (1989). Impact Cratering: A Geologic Process, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Pike, R.J. (1977). Size-dependence in the shape of fresh impact craters on the moon. Impact and Explosion Cratering: Planetary and Terrestrial Implications, Proceedings of the Symposium on Planetary Cratering Mechanics, Flagstaff, AZ, USA, 13\u201317 September 1977, Lunar Science Institute."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2667","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JE005545","article-title":"Deriving Morphometric Parameters and the Simple-to-Complex Transition Diameter From a High-Resolution, Global Database of Fresh Lunar Impact Craters (D \u2265 ~3 km)","volume":"123","author":"Hergarten","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2017.11.009","article-title":"PyFLOWGO: An open-source platform for simulation of channelized lava thermo-rheological properties","volume":"111","author":"Chevrel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2021.114578","article-title":"Emplacement conditions of lunar impact melt flows","volume":"369","author":"Lev","year":"2021","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2014.10.052","article-title":"Lunar floor-fractured craters as magmatic intrusions: Geometry, modes of emplacement, associated tectonic and volcanic features, and implications for gravity anomalies","volume":"248","author":"Jozwiak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pepi.2021.106658","article-title":"Magma ascent and emplacement below floor fractured craters on the Moon from floor uplift and fracture length","volume":"312","author":"Walwer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Earth Planet. Inter."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2017.12.030","article-title":"Lunar floor-fractured craters: Modes of dike and sill emplacement and implications of gas production and intrusion cooling on surface morphology and structure","volume":"305","author":"Wilson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2015.12.039","article-title":"Generation, ascent and eruption of magma on the Moon: New insights into source depths, magma supply, intrusions and effusive\/explosive eruptions (Part 1: Theory)","volume":"283","author":"Wilson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Dhingra, D., Head, J., and Pieters, C.M. (2016, January 21\u201325). Elevation Differences on the Floors of Complex Craters: Insights into the Crater Evolution Processes. Proceedings of the 47th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12415","DOI":"10.1029\/JB090iB14p12415","article-title":"The evolution of impact basins: Cooling, subsidence, and thermal stress","volume":"90","author":"Bratt","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2023.115846","article-title":"The moon before mare","volume":"408","author":"Broquet","year":"2024","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1126\/science.167.3924.1491","article-title":"Viscosity of Lunar Lavas","volume":"167","author":"Murase","year":"1970","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3270","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GC006839","article-title":"A comparison of cooling-limited and volume-limited flow systems: Examples from channels in the Piton de la Fournaise April 2007 lava-flow field","volume":"18","author":"Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Davis, E., Wilson, L., Chen, Y., and Head, J. (2022, January 7\u201311). Rheology and Flow Dynamics of Lunar Lava Flows. Proceedings of the 53rd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, TX, USA."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/19\/3645\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:07:00Z","timestamp":1760112420000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/19\/3645"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,29]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16193645"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16193645","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,29]]}}}