{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:29:31Z","timestamp":1760146171103,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]],"date-time":"2024-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62101445","2020JQ-843"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62101445","2020JQ-843"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province, China","award":["62101445","2020JQ-843"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62101445","2020JQ-843"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The backscatter characteristics of ocean surfaces are of great importance in active marine remote-sensing fields. This paper presents the high spatial and temporal resolution dual co-polarized (VV and HH) and cross-polarized (HV) Ka-band sea-surface backscattering measurements taken from the Yellow Sea research platform at incidence angles ranging from 30\u00b0 to 50\u00b0 and in the wind speed range from 5.8 to 8.6 m\/s. The experimental results show that the backscattering coefficient in HH polarization is close to (or even surpassing) that in VV polarization within a wind speed range of 7.1 to 8.6 m\/s for Ka band under high resolution at medium incidence angles (30\u00b0\u201350\u00b0). Further analysis of the 10-ms short-time observation samples found that the sea surface echoes in VV polarization are more sensitive to wave motions, exhibiting more complex scattering characteristics such as multi-peaks and reducing scattering energy, especially at high wind speeds and large incident angles. The Doppler velocity analysis also confirms that rapid ocean wave changes can be detected within a short observation period, especially in VV polarization. The research in this article not only demonstrates the high spatial and temporal resolution capabilities of Ka-band radar for ocean surface observation but also reveals its great potential in interpreting and inversing rapidly evolving marine phenomena.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16203835","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]],"date-time":"2024-10-15T09:12:50Z","timestamp":1728983570000},"page":"3835","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Experimental Investigation of Meter-Level Resolution Radar Measurement at Ka Band in Yellow Sea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Xiaoxiao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Xi\u2019an University of Posts & Telecommunications, Xi\u2019an 710121, China"}]},{"given":"Xiang","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Academy of Space Technology, Xi\u2019an 710100, China"}]},{"given":"Lixia","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Academy of Space Technology, Xi\u2019an 710100, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3354-7275","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhensen","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"74","article-title":"A Review of Development of Radar Altimeter and Its Applications","volume":"4","author":"Cai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2901","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2174998","article-title":"On the use of doppler shift for sea surface wind retrieval from SAR","volume":"50","author":"Mouche","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2011.2182031","article-title":"REMOCEAN: A Flexible X-Band Radar System for Sea-State Monitoring and Surface Current Estimation","volume":"9","author":"Francesco","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, Y., Chen, D., Chen, S., Su, J., Tao, M., Guo, Z., and Wang, L. (2024). Weak Target Detection Based on Full-Polarization Scattering Features under Sea Clutter Background. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16162987"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Kong, W., Sun, H., and Lu, Y. (2022). Performance Analysis of Ku\/Ka Dual-Band SAR Altimeter from an Airborne Experiment over South China Sea. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102362"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sapp, J., Jelenak, Z., Chang, P., Carswell, J.R., Pollard, B., and Theg, A. (2021, January 11\u201316). Near-Real-Time Significant Wave Heights in Hurricanes from a New Airborne KA-Band Interferometric Altimeter. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS, Brussels, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS47720.2021.9554385"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7878","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2024.3382976","article-title":"Validation of Just-Released SWOT L2 KaRIn Beta Prevalidated Data Based on Restore the Marine Gravity Field and Its Application","volume":"17","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Morales, F., Li, J., Leuschen, C., Hvidegaard, S.M., and Forsberg, R. (October, January 26). Airborne Altimetry Measurements in the Arctic Using a Compact Multi-Band Radar System: Initial Results. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2020\u20142020 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS39084.2020.9323804"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stiles, B.W., Fore, A.G., Bohe, A., Chen, A.C., Chen, C.W., Molero, B., and Dubois, P. (2024, January 7\u201312). Ocean Surface Wind Speed Retrieval for SWOT Ka-band Radar Interferometer. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2024\u20142024 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS53475.2024.10640472"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polverari, F., Wineteer, A., Rodriguez, E., Perkovic-Martin, D., Siqueira, P., Farra, J.T., Adam, J.M., and Edson, J. (2021, January 11\u201316). Towards a Characterization of the Ka-Band Ocean Surface Backscattering Mechanisms. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS, Brussels, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS47720.2021.9554576"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polverari, F., Wineteer, A., Rodr\u00edguez, E., Perkovic-Martin, D., Siqueira, P., Farrar, J.T., Adam, M., Closa Tarr\u00e9s, M., and Edson, J.B. (2022). A Ka-Band Wind Geophysical Model Function Using Doppler Scatterometer Measurements from the Air-Sea Inter-action Tower Experiment. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14092067"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez, E. (2018). On the Optimal Design of Doppler Scatterometers. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201810.0106.v1"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wineteer, A., Perkovic-Martin, D., Monje, R., Rodr\u00edguez, E., G\u00e1l, T., Niamsuwan, N., Nicaise, F., Srinivasan, K., Baldi, C., and Majurec, N. (2020). Measuring Winds and Currents with Ka-Band Doppler Scatterometry: An Airborne Implementation and Progress towards a Spaceborne Mission. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12061021"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Fu, L.L., Alsdorf, D., Morrw, R., Rodriguez, E., and Mognard, N. (2012). Swot: The Surface Water and Ocean Topography Mission: Wideswath Altimetric Elevation on Earth, Jet Propuls. Lab.. Tech. Rep. JPL-Publication 12-05."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5209614","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2023.3281734","article-title":"Improving Sea Surface Height Reconstruction by Simultaneous Ku- and Ka-Band Near-Nadir Single-Pass Interferometric SAR Altimeter","volume":"61","author":"Qiu","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, G., Tang, J., Zhao, C., Wu, S., Yu, F., Ma, C., Xu, Y., Chen, W., Zhang, Y., and Liu, J. (2019). Concept design of the \u2018Guanlan\u2019 science mission: China\u2019s novel contribution to space oceanography. Front. Mar. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00194"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yurovsky, Y.Y., Kudryavtsev, V.N., and Chapron, B. (2017, January 22\u201325). Simultaneous radar and video observations of the sea surface in field conditions. Proceedings of the 2017 Progress in Electromagnetics Research Symposium\u2014Spring (PIERS), St. Petersburg, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIERS.2017.8262183"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yurovsky, Y.Y., Kudryavtsev, V.N., Grodsky, S.A., and Chapron, B. (2022). Ka-Band Doppler Scatterometry: A Strong Wind Case Study. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14061348"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yurovsky, Y.Y., Kudryavtsev, V.N., Grodsky, S.A., and Chapron, B. (2021, January 11\u201316). Ka-Band Radar Backscattering from Breaking Wind Waves. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium IGARSS, Brussels, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS47720.2021.9553284"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yurovsky, Y.Y., Kudryavtsev, V.N., Grodsky, S.A., and Chapron, B. (2021). Ka-Band Radar Cross-Section of Breaking Wind Waves. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13101929"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yurovsky, Y.Y., Kudryavtsev, V.N., Grodsky, S.A., and Chapron, B. (2023). On Doppler Shifts of Breaking Waves. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15071824"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2779323","article-title":"Electromagnetic Scattering from Deterministic Sea Surface with Oceanic Internal Waves via the Variable-Coefficient Gardener Model","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.2528\/PIERB19062003","article-title":"A volume-surface composite scattering model for nonlinear ocean surface with breaking waves and foam layers under high wind conditions","volume":"85","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Electromagn. Res. B"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2628640","article-title":"Ka-Band Dual Copolarized Empirical Model for the Sea Surface Radar Cross Section","volume":"55","author":"Yurovsky","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4983","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2015.2476375","article-title":"Numerical simulation and analysis of the spiky sea clutter from the sea surface with breaking waves","volume":"63","author":"Wei","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1109\/36.628790","article-title":"A model for Brewster angle damping and multipath effects on the microwave radar sea echo at low grazing angles","volume":"35","author":"Trizna","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.2528\/PIER08111803","article-title":"An improved two-scale model with volume scattering for the dynamic ocean surface","volume":"89","author":"Wu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prog. Electromagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1088\/0959-7174\/10\/1\/301","article-title":"Microwave backscatter from mesoscale breaking waves on the sea surface","volume":"10","author":"Churyumov","year":"2000","journal-title":"Waves Random Media"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/20\/3835\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:13:46Z","timestamp":1760112826000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/20\/3835"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16203835"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16203835","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,15]]}}}