{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T09:50:17Z","timestamp":1775123417675,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]],"date-time":"2024-10-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1729209600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42122033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42122033"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42075006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42075006"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42475002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42475002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["316323005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["316323005"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CMA2023ZD08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMA2023ZD08"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Innovation Group Project of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["42122033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42122033"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Group Project of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["42075006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42075006"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Group Project of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["42475002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42475002"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Group Project of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["316323005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["316323005"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Group Project of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["CMA2023ZD08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMA2023ZD08"]}]},{"name":"Key Innovation Team of China Meteorological Administration","award":["42122033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42122033"]}]},{"name":"Key Innovation Team of China Meteorological Administration","award":["42075006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42075006"]}]},{"name":"Key Innovation Team of China Meteorological Administration","award":["42475002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42475002"]}]},{"name":"Key Innovation Team of China Meteorological Administration","award":["316323005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["316323005"]}]},{"name":"Key Innovation Team of China Meteorological Administration","award":["CMA2023ZD08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMA2023ZD08"]}]},{"name":"School of Atmospheric Science of Sun Yat-sen University","award":["42122033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42122033"]}]},{"name":"School of Atmospheric Science of Sun Yat-sen University","award":["42075006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42075006"]}]},{"name":"School of Atmospheric Science of Sun Yat-sen University","award":["42475002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42475002"]}]},{"name":"School of Atmospheric Science of Sun Yat-sen University","award":["316323005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["316323005"]}]},{"name":"School of Atmospheric Science of Sun Yat-sen University","award":["CMA2023ZD08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMA2023ZD08"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Boundary-layer jets (BLJs) in the South China Sea play an important role in heavy rainfall in South China, yet observations in maritime locations are still limited. This study examines the vertical structures and temporal evolutions of BLJs in the northern South China Sea using intensive radiosonde observations from a research vessel from 15 to 18 June 2022 and evaluates the performance of various reanalysis datasets in capturing these features. Observations identified BLJs with jet cores at altitudes of approximately 500\u2013700 m. Wind speeds slightly decreased from 15 to 16 June and then significantly increased after 17 June, showing double peaks on 17 June below 1 km at altitudes of 250 and 700 m. Among the reanalysis datasets, ERA5 exhibited more accurate results on average, followed by MERRA2, both of which outperformed JRA55 and FNL. ERA5 and MERRA2 had mixed performances in depicting BLJ characteristics. ERA5 accurately captured the initial decrease in wind speeds and their subsequent enhancement, while MERRA2 initially faltered but improved later. On the diurnal scale, neither MERRA2 nor ERA5 accurately represented the wind speed peaks observed at 2300 and 1100 LST, whereas ERA5 roughly reflected the nocturnal acceleration of the BLJs. During the observation period, the intensification of BLJs in the northern SCS, influenced by an eastward-moving high-pressure system and a southward-moving low-pressure vortex, led to enhanced precipitation in South China that gradually moved northward from the coastline to inland regions. This study provides new insights into the detailed characteristics of marine BLJs based on direct observations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16203872","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]],"date-time":"2024-10-18T06:46:52Z","timestamp":1729234012000},"page":"3872","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Observation of Boundary-Layer Jets in the Northern South China Sea by a Research Vessel"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Xiyun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, and Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Climate Change and Natural Disaster Studies, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean System (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Zhuhai 519082, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-0458-1091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuhan","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, and Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Climate Change and Natural Disaster Studies, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean System (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Zhuhai 519082, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8828-5431","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, and Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Climate Change and Natural Disaster Studies, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean System (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Zhuhai 519082, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1698","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1996)009<1698:IOLLJT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Importance of Low-Level Jets to Climate: A Review","volume":"9","author":"Stensrud","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8813","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-19-0306.1","article-title":"Climatology of Low-Level Jets and Their Impact on Rainfall over Southern China during the Early-Summer Rainy Season","volume":"32","author":"Du","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4461","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-19-0110.1","article-title":"Warm-Sector Heavy Rainfall in Southern China and Its WRF Simulation Evaluation: A Low-Level-Jet Perspective","volume":"147","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mon. Weather. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"115","article-title":"Analyses of the Vertical Structure of Precipitation in South China based on Dual-Frequency Spaceborne Precipitation Radar GPM Product","volume":"36","author":"Du","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Trop. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-014-3166-8","article-title":"Advances in Low-Level Jet Research and Future Prospects","volume":"28","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Meteorol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dynatmoce.2023.101371","article-title":"Comparing Water Vapor Transport during Precipitation Processes in the Pre-Flood Period of South China and Precipitation Processes of Typhoons in the Post-Flood Period of South China: A Case Study","volume":"102","author":"Ling","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dyn. Atmos. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03183949","article-title":"Mechanism of Formation of Low Level Jets in the South China Sea during Spring and Summer of 1998","volume":"48","author":"Zhao","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"445","article-title":"A Study of the Basic Features and Mechanism of Boundary Layer Jet in Beijing Area","volume":"29","author":"Sun","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chin. J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2257","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1994)122<2257:ADSOTL>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Diagnostic Study of the Low-Level Jet during TAMEX IOP 5","volume":"122","author":"Chen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj.2012-603","article-title":"Characteristics of Low-Level Jets in Shanghai during the 2008-2009 Warm Seasons as Inferred from Wind Profiler Radar Data","volume":"90","author":"Du","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3827","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-18-0101.1","article-title":"Heavy Rainfall Associated with Double Low-Level Jets over Southern China. Part I: Ensemble-Based Analysis","volume":"146","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-18-0102.1","article-title":"Heavy Rainfall Associated with Double Low-Level Jets over Southern China. Part II: Convection Initiation","volume":"147","author":"Du","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8549","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-21-0121.1","article-title":"Statistical Relationships between Two Types of Heavy Rainfall and Low-Level Jets in South China","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2012.04.018","article-title":"Numerical Investigation of a Localized Extremely Heavy Rainfall Event in Complex Topographic Area during Midsummer","volume":"113","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3341","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-20-0292.1","article-title":"Diurnal Variations of Coastal Boundary Layer Jets over the Northern South China Sea and Their Impacts on Diurnal Cycle of Rainfall over Southern China during the Early-Summer Rainy Season","volume":"149","author":"Dong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-021-1195-7","article-title":"Influence of Coastal Marine Boundary Layer Jets on Rainfall in South China","volume":"39","author":"Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3847","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-20-0089.1","article-title":"Convection Initiation and Growth at the Coast of South China. Part I: Effect of the Marine Boundary Layer Jet","volume":"148","author":"Du","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-022-2026-1","article-title":"The Roles of Low-Level Jets in \u201c21\u00b77\u201d Henan Extremely Persistent Heavy Rainfall Event","volume":"40","author":"Luo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2816","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JD027321","article-title":"The Climatology of Low-Level Jet in Beijing and Guangzhou, China","volume":"123","author":"Miao","year":"2018","journal-title":"JGR Atmos."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-023-2358-5","article-title":"Formation of Low-Level Jets over Southern China in the Mei-Yu Season","volume":"40","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477-38.5.283","article-title":"Boundary Layer Wind Maxima and Their Significance for the Growth of Nocturnal Inversions","volume":"38","author":"Blackadar","year":"1957","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1998)126<0959:BJDT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Barrier Jets during TAMEX","volume":"126","author":"Li","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s00703-011-0155-7","article-title":"Numerical Experiments Investigating the Orographic Effects on a Heavy Rainfall Event over the Northwestern Coast of Taiwan during TAMEX IOP 13","volume":"114","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Meteorol. Atmos. Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3674","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-14-0060.1","article-title":"A Simple Analytical Model of the Nocturnal Low-Level Jet over the Great Plains of the United States","volume":"71","author":"Du","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-14-0186.1","article-title":"Analysis of WRF-Simulated Diurnal Boundary Layer Winds in Eastern China Using a Simple 1D Model","volume":"72","author":"Du","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JD035323","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JD035323","article-title":"Low-Level Jet Climatology of China Derived From Long-Term Radiosonde Observations","volume":"126","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"JGR Atmos."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-022-2107-1","article-title":"Analysis of the Characteristics of the Low-Level Jets in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River during the Mei-Yu Season","volume":"40","author":"Cui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00052059","article-title":"Aircraft and Ship Observations of the Mean Structure of the Marine Boundary Layer over the Arabian Sea during MONEX 79","volume":"33","author":"Holt","year":"1985","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1002793831076","article-title":"Low-Level Atmospheric Jets And Inversions Over The Western Weddell Sea","volume":"97","author":"Andreas","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11089","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-13-11089-2013","article-title":"Low-Level Jet Characteristics over the Arctic Ocean in Spring and Summer","volume":"13","author":"Jakobson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2433","DOI":"10.5194\/wes-7-2433-2022","article-title":"Evaluation of Low-Level Jets in the Southern Baltic Sea: A Comparison between Ship-Based Lidar Observational Data and Numerical Models","volume":"7","author":"Rubio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Wind Energy Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-20-0037.1","article-title":"Evaluation of Global Reanalysis Land Surface Wind Speed Trends to Support Wind Energy Development Using In Situ Observations","volume":"60","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2022.112741","article-title":"Analysing the Uncertainties of Reanalysis Data Used for Wind Resource Assessment: A Critical Review","volume":"167","author":"Gualtieri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.5194\/wes-4-193-2019","article-title":"Low-Level Jets over the North Sea Based on ERA5 and Observations: Together They Do Better","volume":"4","author":"Kalverla","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wind Energy Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 Global Reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3981","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-19-0131.1","article-title":"Diurnal Variations of Low-Level Winds and Precipitation Response to Large-Scale Circulations during a Heavy Rainfall Event","volume":"147","author":"Zeng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2019.03.073","article-title":"A Comparative Assessment of Flood Susceptibility Modeling Using Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Analysis and Machine Learning Methods","volume":"573","author":"Khosravi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2010.02.003","article-title":"Methods Used for the Development of Neural Networks for the Prediction of Water Resource Variables in River Systems: Current Status and Future Directions","volume":"25","author":"Maier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2021.11.036","article-title":"Root Mean Square Error or Mean Absolute Error? Use Their Ratio as Well","volume":"585","author":"Karunasingha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1212","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-14-00348.1","article-title":"Numerical Simulations of the Boundary Layer Jet off the Southeastern Coast of China","volume":"143","author":"Du","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5090","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD028368","article-title":"The Controlling Role of Boundary Layer Inertial Oscillations in Meiyu Frontal Precipitation and Its Diurnal Cycles Over China","volume":"123","author":"Xue","year":"2018","journal-title":"JGR Atmos."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, Y., and Du, Y. (2023). Sensitivity of Boundary Layer Parameterization Schemes in a Marine Boundary Layer Jet and Associated Precipitation during a Coastal Warm-Sector Heavy Rainfall Event. Front. Earth Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2022.1085136"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4403","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-20-0882.1","article-title":"Seasonal, Interannual, and Interdecadal Variations of the East Asian Summer Monsoon: A Diurnal-Cycle Perspective","volume":"34","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clim."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/20\/3872\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:15:59Z","timestamp":1760112959000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/20\/3872"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16203872"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16203872","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,18]]}}}