{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T08:15:43Z","timestamp":1768810543130,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,23]],"date-time":"2024-10-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1729641600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003664","name":"Korea Forest Service\u2019s Nation Institute of Forest Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FM0103-2021-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FM0103-2021-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003664","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003664","name":"Korea Forest Service\u2019s Nation Institute of Forest Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RS-2022-00141819"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2022-00141819"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003664","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport","award":["FM0103-2021-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FM0103-2021-01"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport","award":["RS-2022-00141819"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2022-00141819"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Clouds and their shadows significantly affect satellite imagery, resulting in a loss of radiometric information in the shadowed areas. This loss reduces the accuracy of land cover classification and object detection. Among various cloud shadow detection methods, the geometric-based method relies on the geometry of the sun and sensor to provide consistent results across diverse environments, ensuring better interpretability and reliability. It is well known that the direction of shadows in raw satellite images depends on the sun\u2019s illumination and sensor viewing direction. Orthoimages are typically corrected for relief displacements caused by oblique sensor viewing, aligning the shadow direction with the sun. However, previous studies lacked an explicit experimental verification of this alignment, particularly for cloud shadows. We observed that this implication may not be realized for cloud shadows, primarily due to the unknown height of clouds. To verify this, we used Rapideye orthoimages acquired in various viewing azimuth and zenith angles and conducted experiments under two different cases: the first where the cloud shadow direction was estimated based only on the sun\u2019s illumination, and the second where both the sun\u2019s illumination and the sensor\u2019s viewing direction were considered. Building on this, we propose an automated approach for cloud shadow detection. Our experiments demonstrated that the second case, which incorporates the sensor\u2019s geometry, calculates a more accurate cloud shadow direction compared to the true angle. Although the angles in nadir images were similar, the second case in high-oblique images showed a difference of less than 4.0\u00b0 from the true angle, whereas the first case exhibited a much larger difference, up to 21.3\u00b0. The accuracy results revealed that shadow detection using the angle from the second case improved the average F1 score by 0.17 and increased the average detection rate by 7.7% compared to the first case. This result confirms that, even if the relief displacement of clouds is not corrected in the orthoimages, the proposed method allows for more accurate cloud shadow detection. Our main contributions are in providing quantitative evidence through experiments for the application of sensor geometry and establishing a solid foundation for handling complex scenarios. This approach has the potential to extend to the detection of shadows in high-resolution satellite imagery or UAV images, as well as objects like high-rise buildings. Future research will focus on this.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16213950","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,23]],"date-time":"2024-10-23T12:04:22Z","timestamp":1729685062000},"page":"3950","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Automated Cloud Shadow Detection from Satellite Orthoimages with Uncorrected Cloud Relief Displacements"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Hyeonggyu","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoinformatic Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"}]},{"given":"Wansang","family":"Yoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoinformatic Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4083-7409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taejung","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoinformatic Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1149","article-title":"U-Net Cloud Detection for the SPARCS Cloud Dataset from Landsat 8 Images","volume":"37","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Korean J. 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