{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T02:18:38Z","timestamp":1781662718767,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,9]],"date-time":"2024-11-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731110400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Special Expenses for Basic Scientific Research","award":["CEAIEF20240202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CEAIEF20240202"]}]},{"name":"Special Expenses for Basic Scientific Research","award":["42474118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42474118"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","award":["CEAIEF20240202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CEAIEF20240202"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","award":["42474118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42474118"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Earthquake prediction is still a large challenge worldwide so far. In this paper, an automatic detection method was put into service immediately after the Wushi MS 7.1 earthquake on 23 January 2024 to weekly detect possible CSES (China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite) precursory information before impending aftershocks. An electron perturbation with an enhanced magnitude of 38.3% was first detected on 24 January 2024 at night orbit 33175 and the corresponding variations in different plasma parameters measured at this orbit presented a typical feature of electron depletion or plasma bubble with an abrupt decrease and then an increase after one minute. The Kp index was also checked during this period and the values reached 3.7 once on 23 and 24 January, which indicates that these ionospheric variations probably originated from solar activities instead of three strong aftershocks with a magnitude more than five in the following three days. However, uncertainties still exist. Then, an electron perturbation with amplitude of 24.6%, as well as an O+ one of 27.3%, was successfully searched automatically at the same revisiting orbit 33251 on 3 February 2024 in a magnetically quiet period. These two plasma variations, as well as ones of other ionospheric parameters, were characterized by highly synchronous properties, which increase the availability as seismic precursors. However, no obvious variations were observed at other revisiting orbits or other orbits near the aftershock areas during this period. An aftershock with magnitude of MS 5.3 and the strongest one of MS 5.8 took place on 24 and 25 February, respectively, 20 days after and 1000 km away.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16224182","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,11]],"date-time":"2024-11-11T11:34:11Z","timestamp":1731324851000},"page":"4182","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Automatically Detected CSES Ionospheric Precursors Before Part of the Strong Aftershocks of the 23 January 2024 Wushi MS 7.1 Earthquake in Northwest China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5071-6918","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mei","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earthquake Forecasting, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongzhu","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earthquake Forecasting, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earthquake Forecasting, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.2009.04390.x","article-title":"Lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling after the 2003 explosive eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat","volume":"179","author":"Dautermann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"A09312","article-title":"Temporal and spatial precursors in the ionospheric global positioning system (GPS) total electron content observed before the 26 December 2004 M9.3 Sumatra\u2013Andaman Earthquake","volume":"115","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L00G27","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL050159","article-title":"Tsunamigenic ionospheric hole","volume":"39","author":"Kakinami","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Chapagain, N. (2024, May 02). Ionosphere and Its Influence in Communication Systems. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/N-Chapagain\/publication\/322602493_Ionosphere_and_its_Influence_in_Communication_Systems\/links\/5a6478edaca272a1581cf6c7\/Ionosphere-and-its-Influence-in-Communication-Systems.pdf."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C.H., Sun, Y.Y., Lin, K., Liu, J., Wang, Y., Gao, Y., Zhang, D., Xu, R., and Chen, C. (2021). The LAI coupling associated with the M6 Luxian earthquake in China on 16 September 2021. Atmosphere, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12121621"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0273-1177(99)01223-5","article-title":"Quasielectrostatic model of atmosphere-thermosphere-ionosphere coupling","volume":"26","author":"Pulinets","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Hayakawa, M., and Molchanov, O.A. (2002). Conception and model of seismo-ionosphere-magnetosphere coupling. Seismo-Electromagnetics: Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling, TERRAPUB."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1029\/JZ070i009p02251","article-title":"Ionospheric effects observed around the time of the Alaskan earthquake of March 28, 1964","volume":"70","author":"Davies","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2003.07.011","article-title":"Main phenomenological features of ionospheric precursors of strong earthquakes","volume":"65","author":"Pulinets","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1007\/s11589-011-0813-3","article-title":"Statistical analysis of the ion density measured by the satellite DEMETER in relation with the seismic activity","volume":"24","author":"Parrot","year":"2011","journal-title":"Earthq. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"149","article-title":"Statistical analysis of automatically detected ion density variations recorded by DEMETER and their relation to seismic activity","volume":"55","author":"Parrot","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"A04303","article-title":"Decrease of intensity of ELF\/VLF waves observed in the upper ionosphere close to earthquakes: A statistical study","volume":"114","author":"Parrot","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"L05109","article-title":"Spacecraft observations of electromagnetic perturbations connected with seismic activity","volume":"35","author":"Parrot","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"157","article-title":"Attenuation of electromagnetic waves at the frequency ~1.7 kHz in the upper ionosphere observed by the DEMETER satellite in the vicinity of earthquakes","volume":"55","author":"Parrot","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5286","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50469","article-title":"Additional attenuation of natural VLF electromagnetic waves observed by the DEMETER spacecraft resulting from preseismic activity","volume":"118","author":"Parrot","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Lu, J., Zhang, X., and Shen, X. (2019). Indications of ground-based electromagnetic observations to a possible lithosphere\u2013atmosphere\u2013ionosphere electromagnetic coupling before the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan MS 8.0 earthquake. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10070355"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1086","article-title":"Study of the ionospheric anomaly before the Wenchuan earthquake","volume":"54","author":"Yu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"A04320","article-title":"Seismoionospheric GPS total electron content anomalies observed before the 12 May 2008 MW7.9 Wenchuan earthquake","volume":"114","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-10-7-2010","article-title":"Electron and ion density variations before strong earthquakes (M > 6.0) using DEMETER and GPS data","volume":"10","author":"Akhoondzadeh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2957","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-12-2957-2012","article-title":"\u201cReal time analysis\u201d of the ion density measured by the satellite DEMETER in relation with the seismic activity","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3731","DOI":"10.1002\/jgra.50313","article-title":"Statistical analysis of an ionospheric parameter as a base for earthquake prediction","volume":"118","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2017.10.047","article-title":"Statistical analysis of the ionospheric ion density recorded by DEMETER in the epicenter areas of earthquakes as well as in their magnetically conjugate point areas","volume":"61","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JA028116","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JA028116","article-title":"Primary joint statistical seismic influence on ionospheric parameters recorded by the CSES and DEMETER satellites","volume":"125","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Wang, H., Liu, J., and Shen, X. (2022). Two large earthquakes registered by the CSES satellite during its earthquake prediction practice in China. Atmosphere, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13050751"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Yan, H., and Zhang, Y. (2024). Topside ionospheric structures determined via automatically detected DEMETER ion perturbations during a geomagnetically quiet period. Geosciences, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences14020033"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"595","article-title":"Inner properties of seasonal topside ionospheric structures determined via DEMETER ion perturbations","volume":"55","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys. Planet. Phys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2023.07.044","article-title":"Temporal-spatial characteristics of seismo-ionospheric influence observed by the CSES satellite","volume":"73","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4015","DOI":"10.1029\/2017JA024871","article-title":"Three-dimensional tomography of ionospheric anomalies immediately before the 2015 Illapel earthquake, Central Chile","volume":"123","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131842","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/131842","article-title":"Low-latitude atmosphere-ionosphere effects initiated by strong earthquakes preparation process","volume":"2012","author":"Pulinets","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.26464\/epp2018045","article-title":"The Electric Field Detector (EFD) onboard the ZH-1 satellite and first observational results","volume":"2","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.26464\/epp2018050","article-title":"Examples of unusual ionospheric observations by the CSES prior to earthquakes","volume":"2","author":"Yan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-018-9242-0","article-title":"The state-of-the-art of the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite mission","volume":"61","author":"Shen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. China Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Ouzounov, D., Pulinets, S., Kafatos, M.C., and Taylor, P. (2018). Statistical analysis of the ionospheric density recorded by the satellite during seismic activity. Pre-Earthquake Processes: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Earthquake Prediction Studies, Wiley. AGU Monograph."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Yang, Z., Song, J., Zhang, Y., Jiang, X., and Shen, X. (2023). Statistical seismo-ionospheric influence with the focal mechanism under consideration. Atmosphere, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos14030455"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3796","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2021.08.009","article-title":"Typical ionospheric disturbances revealed by the plasma analyzer package onboard the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite","volume":"68","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.26464\/epp2021043","article-title":"Observations of equatorial plasma bubbles during the geomagnetic storm of October 2016","volume":"5","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Phys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020EA001475","DOI":"10.1029\/2020EA001475","article-title":"The data comparison of electron density between CSES and DEMETER satellite, Swarm constellation and IRI model","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JA027747","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JA027747","article-title":"Comparison of Electron Density and Temperature from the CSES Satellite with other Space-Borne and Ground-Based Observations","volume":"125","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhima, Z., Hu, Y., Shen, X., Chu, W., and Guo, F. (2021). Storm-time features of the ionospheric ELF\/VLF waves and energetic electron fluxes revealed by the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11062617"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-020-01316-w","article-title":"The CSES global geomagnetic field model (CGGM): An IGRF-type global geomagnetic field model based on data from the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite","volume":"73","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JA028368","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JA028368","article-title":"Ionospheric response over Brazil to the August 2018 geomagnetic storm as probed by CSES-01 and Swarm satellites and by local groundbased observations","volume":"126","author":"Spogli","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-38-775-2020","article-title":"Ionospheric Pc1 waves during a storm recovery phase observed by the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite","volume":"38","author":"Gou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., De Santis, A., Liu, J., Campuzano, S.A., Yang, N., Cianchini, G., Ouyang, X., D\u2019Arcangelo, S., Yang, M., and De Caro, M. (2024). Pre-Earthquake Oscillating and Accelerating Patterns in the Lithosphere\u2013Atmosphere\u2013Ionosphere Coupling (LAIC) before the 2022 Luding (China) MS 6.8 Earthquake. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4804002"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1","article-title":"Statistical correlation analysis of strong earthquakes and ionospheric electron density anomalies as observed by CSES-01","volume":"Volume 119","author":"Marchetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"IL Nuovo Cimento 44 C"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, M., Zhang, X., Zhong, M., Guo, Y., Qian, G., Liu, J., Yuan, C., Li, Z., Wang, S., and Zhai, L. (2024). Spatio-temporal evolution of electric field, magnetic field and thermal infrared remote sensing associated with the 2021 MW7.3 Maduo earthquake in China. Atmosphere, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos15070770"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6266","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JA026917","article-title":"An opposite response of the low-latitude ionosphere at Asian and American sectors during storm recovery phases: Drivers from below or above","volume":"124","author":"Xiong","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6826(00)00095-X","article-title":"An overview and synthesis of plasma irregularities in equatorial spread F","volume":"62","author":"Hysell","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1002\/2016SW001439","article-title":"The Swarm satellite loss of GPS signal and its relation to ionospheric plasma irregularities","volume":"14","author":"Xiong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10474","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JA020708","article-title":"Nonlinear growth, bifurcation, and pinching of equatorial plasma bubble simulated by three-dimensional high-resolution bubble model","volume":"119","author":"Yokoyama","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5771","DOI":"10.1029\/93JA02867","article-title":"What is a geomagnetic storm?","volume":"99","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6826(00)00094-8","article-title":"Upper-atmospheric effects of magnetic storms: A brief tutorial","volume":"62","author":"Richmond","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6826(00)00201-7","article-title":"Outstanding problems in the equatorial ionospherethermosphere electrodynamics relevant to spread F","volume":"63","author":"Abdu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"A10317","article-title":"Ionosphere plasma bubbles and density variations induced by pre-earthquake rock currents and associated surface charges","volume":"116","author":"Kuo","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/22\/4182\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:29:16Z","timestamp":1760113756000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/16\/22\/4182"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,9]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs16224182"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs16224182","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,9]]}}}