{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T20:44:03Z","timestamp":1775076243490,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]],"date-time":"2024-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Research and Outreach Division (VIE)","award":["VIE 1431030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1431030"]}]},{"name":"Research and Outreach Division (VIE)","award":["VIE 1713024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1713024"]}]},{"name":"Research and Outreach Division (VIE)","award":["FI-054B-19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI-054B-19"]}]},{"name":"Doctoral Engineering Program","award":["VIE 1431030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1431030"]}]},{"name":"Doctoral Engineering Program","award":["VIE 1713024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1713024"]}]},{"name":"Doctoral Engineering Program","award":["FI-054B-19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI-054B-19"]}]},{"name":"Graduate Studies Office of the Instituto Tecnol\u00f3gico de Costa Rica (ITCR)","award":["VIE 1431030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1431030"]}]},{"name":"Graduate Studies Office of the Instituto Tecnol\u00f3gico de Costa Rica (ITCR)","award":["VIE 1713024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1713024"]}]},{"name":"Graduate Studies Office of the Instituto Tecnol\u00f3gico de Costa Rica (ITCR)","award":["FI-054B-19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI-054B-19"]}]},{"name":"Costa Rica Ministry of Science, Innovation, Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT)","award":["VIE 1431030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1431030"]}]},{"name":"Costa Rica Ministry of Science, Innovation, Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT)","award":["VIE 1713024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1713024"]}]},{"name":"Costa Rica Ministry of Science, Innovation, Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT)","award":["FI-054B-19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI-054B-19"]}]},{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Rectores (CONARE)","award":["VIE 1431030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1431030"]}]},{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Rectores (CONARE)","award":["VIE 1713024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1713024"]}]},{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Rectores (CONARE)","award":["FI-054B-19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI-054B-19"]}]},{"name":"Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)","award":["VIE 1431030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1431030"]}]},{"name":"Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)","award":["VIE 1713024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1713024"]}]},{"name":"Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)","award":["FI-054B-19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI-054B-19"]}]},{"name":"Universidad Nacional (UNA)","award":["VIE 1431030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1431030"]}]},{"name":"Universidad Nacional (UNA)","award":["VIE 1713024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VIE 1713024"]}]},{"name":"Universidad Nacional (UNA)","award":["FI-054B-19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FI-054B-19"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introducing artificial intelligence techniques in agriculture offers new opportunities for improving crop management, such as in coffee plantations, which constitute a complex agroforestry environment. This paper presents a comparative study of three deep learning frameworks: Deep Forest, RT-DETR, and Yolov9, customized for coffee plant detection and trained from images with a high spatial resolution (cm\/pix). Each frame had dimensions of 640 \u00d7 640 pixels acquired from passive RGB sensors onboard a UAS (Unmanned Aerial Systems) system. The image set was structured and consolidated from UAS-RGB imagery acquisition in six locations along the Central Valley, Costa Rica, through automated photogrammetric missions. It was evidenced that the RT-DETR and Yolov9 frameworks allowed adequate generalization and detection with mAP50 values higher than 90% and mAP5095 higher than 54%, in scenarios of application with data augmentation techniques. Deep Forest also achieved good metrics, but noticeably lower when compared to the other frameworks. RT-DETR and Yolov9 were able to generalize and detect coffee plants in unseen scenarios that include complex forest structures within tropical agroforestry Systems (AFS).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16244617","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]],"date-time":"2024-12-10T04:15:03Z","timestamp":1733804103000},"page":"4617","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["A Comparative Study of Deep Learning Frameworks Applied to Coffee Plant Detection from Close-Range UAS-RGB Imagery in Costa Rica"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1155-3076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"Arriola-Valverde","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Instituto Tecnol\u00f3gico de Costa Rica (ITCR), Cartago 30101, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3087-9162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Renato","family":"Rimolo-Donadio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Instituto Tecnol\u00f3gico de Costa Rica (ITCR), Cartago 30101, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2335-0615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karolina","family":"Villagra-Mendoza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Engineering, CETIA Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y Extensi\u00f3n en Tecnolog\u00eda e Ingenier\u00eda Agr\u00edcola, Instituto Tecnol\u00f3gico de Costa Rica (ITCR), Cartago 30101, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9094-8983","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfonso","family":"Chac\u00f3n-Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Instituto Tecnol\u00f3gico de Costa Rica (ITCR), Cartago 30101, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6225-2882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ronny","family":"Garc\u00eda-Ramirez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Engineering, Instituto Tecnol\u00f3gico de Costa Rica (ITCR), Cartago 30101, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9371-9799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Somarriba-Chavez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agroforestry and Genetic Improvement of Coffee and Cocoa, CATIE\u2014Centro Agron\u00f3mico Tropical de Investigaci\u00f3n y Ense\u00f1anza, Turrialba 30501, Costa Rica"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6326","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2020.3027880","article-title":"Erosion Quantification in Runoff Agriculture Plots by Multitemporal High-Resolution UAS Digital Photogrammetry","volume":"13","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE J. 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